m r=\ cr m O m o PLATE I. A MANUAL FOR THE STUDY OF INSECTS BY JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK Professor of Entomology in Cornell University and in Leland Stanford Junior University ANNA BOTSFORD COMSTOCK Member of the Society of American Wood-Engravers ITHACA, N. Y. COMSTOCK PUBLISHING COMPANY 1895 Copyright, 1895, BY JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK. PREFACE. FOR many years the most pressing demand of teachers and learners in entomology in this country has been for a handbook by means of which the names and relative affini- ties of insects may be determined in some such way as plants are classified by the aid of the well-known manuals of botany. But, as the science of entomology is still in its infancy, the preparation of such a handbook has been im- possible. Excellent treatises on particular groups of insects have been published ; but no. general work including analyt- ical keys to all the orders and families has appeared. It is to meet this need that this work has been prepared. The reader must not expect, however, to find that de- gree of completeness in this work which exists in the man- uals of flowering plants. The number of species of insects is so great that a work including adequate descriptions of all those occurring in our fauna would rival in size one of the larger encyclopaedias. It is obvious that such a work is not what is needed by the teachers and students in our schools, even if it were possible to prepare it. An elementary work on systematic entomology will always of necessity be re- stricted to a discussion of the characteristics of the orders and families, and descriptions of a few species as illustrations. Complete synopses of species will be appropriate only in works treating of limited groups. It is believed, therefore, that it would not be wise to materially change the scope of iii IV PREFACE. the present work even if it were possible to describe all of our species. Although much pains has been taken to render easy the classification of specimens, an effort has been made to give the mere determination of the names of insects a very sub- ordinate place. The groups of insects have been fully char- acterized, so that their relative affinities may be learned ; and much space has been given to accounts of the habits and transformations of the forms described. As the needs of agricultural students have been kept constantly in view, those species that are of economic importance have been described as fully as practicable, and particular attention has been given to descriptions of the methods of destroying those that are noxious, or of preventing their ravages. An effort has been made to simplify the study of in- sects as much as possible without sacrificing accuracy in the descriptions. Only such morphological terms have been used as were necessary to accomplish the object of the book in a satisfactory manner. And so far as possible a uniform nomenclature has been used for all orders of insects. The fact that writers on each order of insects have a peculiar nomenclature has been a serious obstacle to the progress of entomology ; this is especially true as regards the nomen- clature of the wing-veins. It has been necessary for the student in passing from the study of one order of insects to that of another to learn a new set of terms; and in many cases writers on a single family have a peculiar nomenclature. The present writer has endeavored to remove this obstacle by making a serious study of the homologies of the wing-veins, and by applying the same term throughout the work to homologous veins. The result is that the student is required to learn only one set of terms ; and in applying these terms there will be brought to his attention in a forci- ble manner the peculiar modifications of structure charac- teristic of each order of insects. Heretofore, with a differ- ent nomenclature for the wing-veins of each order such a PREFA CE. V comparative study of the various methods of specialization has been beyond the read of any but the most advanced scholars. The principal features of the method of notation of wing-veins proposed by Josef Redtenbacher has been adopted. But as the writer's views regarding the structure of the wings of primitive insects is very different from those of Redtenbacher, the nomenclature proposed in this book is to a great extent original. The chief point of difference arises from the belief by the present writer that veins IV and VI do not exist in the Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera ; and that, in those orders where they do exist, they are secondary developments. The reasons for this be- lief are set forth at length in my essay on Evolution and Taxonomy. In this essay there was proposed a new classification of the Lepidoptera, which was the result of an effort to work out the phylogeny of the divisions of this order. This classi- fication has been further elaborated in the present work. In the other orders but few changes have been made from the more generally accepted classifications. It is more than probable however, that when the taxonomic principles upon which this classification of the Lepidoptera is based are ap- plied to the classification of the other orders radical changes will be found to be necessary. A serious obstacle to the popularization of Natural His- tory is the technical names that it is necessary to use. In order to reduce this difficulty to a minimum the pronuncia- tion of all of the Latin terms used has been indicated, by dividing each into syllables and marking the accented syllable. In doing this the well-established rules for the division of Latin words into syllables have been followed. It seems necessary to state this fact in order to account for differences which exist between the pronunciations given here and some of those in certain large dictionaries recently published in this country. VI PREFA CE. Nearly all of the wood-cuts have been engraved from nature by the Junior Author. As the skill which she has attained in this art has been acquired during the progress of the work on this book, some of the earlier-made illustra- tions do not fairly represent her present standing as an engraver. But it does not seem worth while to delay the appearance of the book in order to re-engrave these figures; especially as it is believed that they will not be found lack- ing in scientific accuracy. The generous appreciation which the best engravers have shown towards the greater part of the work leads us to hope that it will be welcomed as an important addition to entomological illustrations. Although the chief work of the Junior Author has been with the pencil and graver, many parts of the text are from her pen. But in justice to her it should be said that the plan of the book was changed after she had finished her writing. It was intended at first to make the book of a much more elementary nature than it is in its final form. It has seemed best, however, to leave these parts as written in order that the work may be of interest to a wider range of readers than it would be were it restricted to a uniform style of treatment. The figures illustrating the venation of the wings of in- sects have been drawn with great care under the writer's direction by Mr. E. P. Felt and Mr. R. H. Pettit. About one half of those in the chapter on Lepidoptera were drawn by Mr. Felt ; the others in this chapter and those in the chapters on Diptera and Hymenoptera were drawn by Mr. Pettit. I wish also to acknowledge the help of my Assistant Mr. A. D. MacGillivray, to whom I am indebted for much aid in bibliographical researches and in many other ways; also, that of Dr. A. C. White of the Cornell University Library, who has generously given much time to determining the etymologies of many of the more obscure words the pro- nunciations of which are indicated in the text. PREFACE. Vll To the authorities of Cornell University the authors of this book are under deep obligation for aid and encourage- ment. The preparation of the work would not have been possible but for the liberal grants which they have made for the purchase of specimens and books. JOHN HENRY COMSTOCK. ENTOMOLOGICAL LABORATORY, CORNELL UNIVERSITY, December, 1894. CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE I. Zoological Classification and Zoological Nomenclature... i II. Insects and their Near Relatives : Branch ARTHROPODA ; Class CRUSTACEA, Crabs, Lobsters, Crayfish, and Others; Class ARACHNIDA, Spiders, Scorpions, Mites, and Others; and Class MYRIAPODA, Centipedes and Millipedes 9 III. Class HEXAPODA or Insects : Characteristics of the Class; Metamorphoses of Insects ; External Anatomy of In- sects ; Internal Anatomy of Insects ; Table for Deter- mining the Orders of Insects; List of the Orders of Insects 48 IV. Order THYSANURA, Bristle-tails, Spring-tails, Fish- moths, and Others 82 V. Order EPHEMERIDA, May-flies 86 VI. Order ODONATA, Dragon-flies . . 89 VII. Order PLECOPTERA, Stone-flies 93 VIII. Order ISOPODA, Termites or White-ants 95 IX. Order CORRODENTIA, Book-lice and Others * 98 X. Order MALLOPHAGA, Bird-lice 100 XI. Order DERMAPTERA Earwigs 102 XII. Order ORTHOPTERA, Cockroaches, Crickets, Grasshop- pers, Locusts, and Others 104 XIII. Order PHYSOPODA, Thrips 119 XIV. Order HEMIPTERA, Bugs, Plant-lice, Bark-lice, and Others 121 XV. Order NEUROPTERA, the Dobson and Others. ... 175 XVI. Order MECAPTERA, Scorpion-flies 184 XVII. Order TRICHOPTERA, Caddice-flies 186 XVIII. Order LEPIDOPTERA, Moths, Skippers, and Butterflies. . 191 XIX. Order DIPTERA, Flies .413 XX. Order SIPHONAPTERA, Fleas 49 XXI. Order COLEOPTERA, Beetles 494 XXII. Order HYMENOPTERA Bees, Wasps, Ants, and Others.. 599 INDEX AND GLOSSARY 679 ix EXPLANATION OF PLATES. PLATE I. (FRONTISPIECE.) FIGURE PAGE 1. The Carpet Beetle 539 2. The Twelve-spotted Diabrotica 577 3. The Adalia bipunctata 535 4. The Silver-spotted Skipper 370 5. The American Copper 390 6. The Red Admiral 401 7. The Painted Beauty 401 PLATE II. (PAGE 68.) THE INTERNAL ANATOMY OF A CATERPILLAR. PLATE III. (PAGE 70.) THE INTERNAL ANATOMY OF A COCKROACH. PLATE IV. (PAGE 343.) PSEUDOHAZIS HERA. PLATE V. (PAGE 353.) FIGURE PAGE 1. The Luna Moth 353 2. The Crinkled Flannel-moth 218 PLATE VI. (PAGE 389.) 1. The Spring Azure 391 2. The Green Comma 404 3. The Hop-merchant , 405 4. The Banded Elfin 393 5. The Mourning-cloak 403 6. The Olive Hair-streak - 393 7. The Spring Azure 391 8. The Violet Tip 405 A MANUAL FOR THE STUDY OF INSECTS CHAPTER I. ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE. I. Zoological Classification. (For advanced students.} IN order that the myriad forms of animals may be studied with facility some system of classification is necessary. And now that we have learned that there exists a blood-relationship between the differ- ent kinds of animals, that system which most clearly expresses this relationship is doubtless the best. This system is termed the Natural Classification. It is now generally believed that long ago, in early geological times, there existed on the earth only very simple animals and plants; and that from these simple beginnings more and more complex forms have been developed. This growth in complexity has taken place in different descendants of these simple primitive beings in very differ- ent ways. Thus while it is probable that the first animals lived in water, and very many still do so, others have become adapted to life on the land, and in still others organs have been developed by which they can fly through the air. And under each of these conditions we find a great diversity of forms, each fitted for some special mode of life. THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The diversity of forms of animal life is much greater than is com- monly supposed. A competent authority has estimated that there are now living on the earth more than one million species of animals. And these are merely the surviving descendants of immense series of beings that have existed in past geological times, the remaining tips of a great genealogical tree, of which many twigs and branches have perished. The common figurative use of the word tree in this connection expresses well the convergence of the lines of descent toward the common ancestor from which existing forms have descended. But in one respect it may be misleading. If an ordinary tree be ex- amined, the tip of one branch will closely resemble that of any other branch of the same tree. But in this figurative genealogical tree we must imagine a very different state of affairs. Here the law of growth is constant change ; each branch grows in its own individual way; and each twig of each branch bears fruit peculiar to itself. The changes, however, are gradual ; and thus the tips of closely-con- nected twigs will be similar though not identical ; while the tips of two branches that separated early in the growth of the tree will be very different. It is the effort of the systematise one who studies the classification of animals and plants, to work out the relations which exist between the various tips of the genealogical tree. This study when carried to its fullest extent includes not only the study of existing forms of life, but also the study of those that have perished, the trunk-forms from which existing forms have descended. This, however, is a very difficult matter; and as yet only the beginnings of the Natural Classification have been made. See pp. 139 to 204. If we accept this theory of descent, now almost universally ac- cepted by naturalists, it is evident that when we take into account all the forms of life that have existed we cannot classify animals into well-marked groups; for as the modification in form is gradual, series of connecting links have existed between any two forms that might be selected. But practically the student that confines his attention to the study of living forms can classify these forms into more or less well- marked groups, for many of the connecting links have perished ; in fact, the groups of living animals and plants are so distinct that it is only in recent years that naturalists have come to understand the blood-relationship referred to above. We find that the Animal and Vegetable Kingdoms are made up of a vast assemblage of individuals, each the offspring of parents similar ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION. ^ to itself, and each in turn producing similar offspring. Although the offspring is never exactly like either parent, the degree of variation in a single generation is slight. And thus we find that there exist large numbers of individuals which very closely resemble each other. Such a collection of individuals is termed in popular language a kind, in scientific language a species. Thus the kind of pine trees known as pitch-pine is a species: and scrub-pine, still another. In the same way the name sparrow-hawk indicates a kind or species of hawk; and pigeon-hawk, another species. Roughly speaking, a species is a collection of individuals which resemble each other as closely as the offspring of a single parent. For example, if any two pitch-pines be studied, nothing will be found to indicate that they may not have sprung from seeds grown upon the same tree. On the other hand, if a pitch-pine and a white-pine be carefully compared, they will be found so different that no competent observer would believe that they had a common parent. Unfortunately this mode of defining the limits of a species cannot be depended upon. Many instances are known where forms of animals or plants living in widely-separated regions differ so greatly that they have been considered distinct species until more extended collections in the intermediate regions have brought to light series of intermediate forms, which connect the two so-called species so closely that it is impossible to say where the one ends and the other begins. The only definite way of determining whether two forms are specifically distinct is to determine whether they naturally interbreed or not. We find among wild animals a sort of race prejudice which keeps the members of different species from pairing, although they may do so when demoralized by domestication. Except in the case of very-closely-allied species, the pairing of individuals of different species results in no offspring or in the production of sterile offspring. This grouping of individuals into species not only facilitates our study of Natural History, but expresses certain important facts of inheritance and reproduction. A second and somewhat similar step is made by grouping species into genera. We find that there exist groups of closely-allied species, species that resemble each other in all of the more important characters, and differ among themselves only in what are known as the specific characters. Such a group of species is termed a genus. Thus all the different species of pine taken together constitute the genus pine, or Finns, as it is termed by botanists. There are many species of oak, 4 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. as red-oak, live-oak, and water-oak. Al! of the species of oak taken together constitute the genus Quercns of botanists. Several species of hawks and falcons are classed together by zoologists as the genus Falco. The genera in turn are grouped into families. Thus the pines, the spruces, and the larches resemble each other quite closely, and are classed together as the Pine Family (Abietinece) ; the falcons, hawks, kites, and eagles are classed together as the Falcon Family (Falconidcs). Closely-allied families are grouped together to form orders. The Pine Family, the Cypress Family, and the Yew Family comprise the Order Conifers, or cone-bearing plants, of botanists. The Owl Fam- ily (Strisfidcz), the Falcon Family (.Falconz'dtz),a.r\.& the Vulture Family (Vultiiridce) constitute the Order Raptores, or Birds of Prey. Closely-allied orders are grouped together to form classes. Thus all the orders of birds taken together constitute the Class Aves or Birds. The classes are grouped into branches, which are the principal divisions of the Animal Kingdom.* In studying the different forms of animals it is found that there are several distinct types of structure. Some animals are built upon one plan or structure, and others on other plans. All animals built on the same plan are said to belong to the same Branch. Thus the back-boned animals comprise the Branch Vertebrata ; the clams, oysters, snails, cuttle-fish, and certain other allied forms comprise the Branch Mollusca ; and the insects, spiders, centipedes, lobsters, and their near relatives comprise the Brandt Arthropoda. All the branches of animals taken together constitute the Animal Kingdom. It is not possible to lay down rules by which these different groups of animals can be limited. For, as has been shown in our discussion of species, all have been connected in past time by intermediate forms. But notwithstanding this, each of the terms given above (Branch, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species) expresses a pretty definite conception, which the student will learn to comprehend by practice in classifying animals. But the sequence in rank of these groups should be learned at the outset. Beginning with the most compre- hensive it is as follows : * The principal divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom are not termed Branches ; hence we will not make further use of botanical illustrations in this connection. ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 5 Animal Kingdom. Branch or Subkingdom. Class. Order. Family. Genus. Species. Individual. It is sometime desirable to indicate other groups than those named above. Thus a family may be divided into subfamilies, or an order into suborders. And occasionally an even more minute division is made. Thus several closely-allied families may be grouped together as a superfamily, a group of lower rank than a suborder. The follow- ing table includes all the grades of groups now commonly employed : Kingdom. Branch or Subkingdom. Class. Subclass. Superorder. Order. Suborder. Superfamily. Family. Subfamily. Genus. Subgenus. Species. Subspecies. Variety. Individual. II. Zoological Nomenclature. (For advanced students.} At the beginning of his studies of Natural History the student is met with what is to him a new and strange set of names. These names are often long. In form they belong to a dead language, with which, in these da}'s, even many educated people are unfamiliar. It is not strange that we often hear complaint respecting the difficulty of this nomenclature. O THE STUDY OF INSECTS. A little study of the matter, however, is sufficient to show the necessity for scientific names. The common names of animals will not answer our purpose ; for the same name is often applied to widely different animals in different localities, while a single species of animal is known by totally different names in different sections of the country, In order that information respecting animals may be recorded so that there need not be any doubt regarding the animal to which refer- ence is made, it is necessary that each species or group of species should have a distinct name by which it shall be known by naturalists in all parts of the world. Therefore, to each branch, class, order, family, genus, and species which has been described there has been given a special name, by which it is known, and which pertains to this group alone. As this nomenclature is used by all naturalists of whatever nation- ality, it is necessary that the names should be in a language which can be understood by all. As Latin was the language in which most scientific books were written at the time this nomenclature was estab- lished, that language was chosen as the universal language of science; and the rule has been adopted that all names of animals and plants shall be Latin, or Latin in form. The name of a species consists of two words the name of the genus to which the species belongs, followed by an adjective indicat- ing the particular species ; for in Latin an adjective follows the noun which it qualifies, instead of preceding it as in English. Thus the scientific name of the Pigeon-hawk is Falco columbarius; that of the Sparrow-hawk is Falco sparverius ; and that of the Prairie-falcon is Falco mexicanus. In the case of many species we find well-marked subspecies or geographical races which it is desirable to distinguish by name. Thus the Pigeon-hawk occurs over the whole of North America. But we California to Sitka, constitute a distinct geographical race known as the Black Merlin. As the Black Merlin and the typical Pigeon-hawk intergrade, they constitute a single species, which is known as Falco columbarius. To the Black Merlin has been applied the subspecific name suckleyi. When, therefore, it is desired to refer to the Black Merlin as distinguished from the typical Pigeon-hawk the term Falco columbarius suckleyi is used. If reference is to be made to the typical Pigeon-hawk as distinguished from the Black Merlin, it is designated as Falco cohimbarhis colunibarius. In writing long names like those given above they are frequently ZOOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE. 7 abbreviated if the context is such that the abbreviations will be read- ily understood. Thus the name of the Black Merlin may be written Falco c. suckleyi or F. c. suckleyi. Subspecific names are used by entomologists not only to distinguish geographical races, but also to distinguish the different forms of dimorphic and polymorphic species. A good illustration is afforded by a certain species of Swallow-tail Butterfly common in the Atlantic States. This species exists under two distinct forms; one of these is yellow marked with black, and has long been known as Jasoniades turmis ; the other is almost entirely black, and has been known as Jasoniades glaucus. At first it was supposed that these were different species ; but in recent years the two forms have been bred from eggs laid by the same female. It is thus evident that the two forms repre- sent a single species. And as the form Caucus was first described its name is given to the species, which is now known as Jasoniades glaucus. This name Jasoniades glaticits is used when reference is made to the species as a whole. But if one wishes to refer to the black form alone, it is distinguished as Jasoniades glancus glaucus ; while the yellow form is distinguished as Jasoniades glaucus turnus. In the illustrations just given the dimorphism occurs in the same generation. But many instances are known where the dimorphism is seasonal. Thus in the case of certain insects which pass through two or more generations in the course of a year, the different generations, or some of them, differ markedly in form or coloring from the others. These differences in many cases are so great that the different genera- tions of the same species were believed to be distinct species till they were bred from each other. It is therefore often desirable to distin- guish these different forms by subspecific names. Thus Iphiclidcs ajax is a species of Swallow-tail Butterfly which exists under three distinct seasonal forms: an early spring iorm, I. ajax marcellus ; a late spring form,/, ajax telamonides ; and a summer form, /. ajax ajax. The name of a genus or of a subgenus is always a single word, and should be a noun in the singular number and nominative case. The names of all groups of genera (i.e., families, orders, classes, and branches) consist each of a single word ; and this word should be a plural noun in the nominative case. The following practices regarding the forms of zoological names are now almost universally followed : The names of all groups in zoology, from kingdom to subgenus inclusive, are written and printed with a capital initial letter. 8 THE STUDY OF INSECTS, Specific and subspecific names are written and printed with a small initial letter. Thus in writing the name of a species the generic name is capitalized, the specific name not ; e.g., Iphiclides ajax. The names of families end in idee ; the names of subfamilies, in ince. It will aid the student greatly in the pronunciation of family and subfamily names to know that the /of -idee in family names is short, and consequently the accent falls on the syllable preceding this letter; while the /of -ince of subfamily names is long, and is conse- quently accented.* Numerous examples are given in the following pages. * This in accordance with the rule of Latin grammar that in words of more than two syllables the penult if long is accented; but if the penult is short the accent falls on the antepenult. CHAPTER II. INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. Branch ARTHROPODA (Ar-throp'o-da). The Arthropods (Ar'thro-pods). If an insect, a spider, a scorpion, a centipede, or a lobster be examined, the body will be found to be composed of a series of more or less similar rings or seg- ments joined together; and some of these segments will be found to bear jointed legs (Fig. i). All the animals possessing these characteristics are classed together as the Branch Arthropoda. A similar segmented form of the body is found among worms ; but these are dis- tinguished from the Arthropods by the absence of legs. It should be remembered that many animals commonly called worms, as the tomato-worm, apple-worm, etc., are, not true worms, but are the larvse of in- sects (Fig. 2). The angle-worm is the most familiar example of a true worm. The Branch Arthropoda is the largest of the branches of the Animal Kingdom, including many more known species than all the other branches taken together. Our common representatives are distributed among four classes : these are the Crustacea, the Arachnida, the Myriapoda, and the Hexapoda. The 9 IO THE STUDY OF INSECTS. first three classes are briefly discussed in this chapter ; the fourth comprises the Insects, and is the subject of the remaining parts of this book. FIG. 2. A larva of an insect. The following table will enable the student to distin- guish the classes of the Arthropoda.* TABLE OF CLASSES OF THE ARTHROPODA. A. With two pairs of antennae and at least five pairs of legs. Aquatic animals breathing by gills, p. 1 1 CRUSTACEA. AA. With one pair of antennas or with none. Air-breathing ani- mals. The number of legs varies from six to many. * The following is the method of using the analytical tables given in this book: Read carefully the statement of characteristics given opposite A and AA respectively, and by examining the animal to be classified determine which is true of this animal. This will indicate in which division of the table the name of the group to which the animal belongs is to be looked for. If this division of the table is subdivided, pass to B and BB (also to BBB if it occurs) in this division and determine in a like manner under which the animal belongs. Continue in this way, passing to the letters C, D, E, etc., in regular order till the name of the group is reached. Then turn to the page indicated and read the description or the group given there, comparing the specimens with the description. It should be borne in mind that an analyt- ical table is merely an aid to the determination of groups. As the groups that we recognize are not always sharply limited in nature, we cannot expect to be able in every case to find characters that will serve to distinctly separate them in a table. Therefore when a student has determined by the aid of a key to what group a species seems to belong, he should verify this determi- nation by a study of the characters of that group given in the detailed dis- cussion of it. INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. II B. Without antennae and with four pairs of legs, although the maxillary palpi are often leg-like in form, making the animal appear to have five pairs of legs. p. 12 ARACHNIDA. BB. With antennae. C. With more than three pairs of legs; and without wings, p. 45 MYRIAPODA. CC. With only three pairs of legs, and usually with wings in the adult state, p. 48 HEXAPODA. Class CRUSTACEA (Crus-ta'ce-a). The Crustaceans (Crus-ta 1 ce-ans). The members of this class are aquatic ArtJiropoda^vJiich breathe by true gills. TJiey Jiave two pairs of antenna and at least Jive pairs of legs. The most familiar illustrations of the Crustacea are the Cray-fishes, the Lobsters, the Shrimps, and the Crabs. Cray-fishes (Fig. 3) abound in our brooks, and are often improperly called Crabs. The Lobsters, the Shrimps, and the true Crabs live in salt water. The Crustaceans are distinguished from all oth- er Arthropods by their mode of respiration, being the only ones that breathe by true gills. Many in- sects live in water, and are furnished with gill-like organs; but these are tracheal gills, organs which differ essentially in structure from true gills, as described later, in the chapter on Anat- omy of Insects. The Crustacea also differ from other Arthropoda in having two pairs of antennae; and from all FIG. 3. A Cray-fish. 12 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. FIG. 4. Crustacea : a. Cyfiris; 6, c y ciop s: c, except the Myriapoda in having many (more than four) pairs of legs. The illustrations named above are the more conspicuous members of the class ; but many other smaller forms abound both in the sea and in fresh water. Some of the more minute fresh-water forms are almost sure to occur in any fresh- water aquarium. In Figure 4 are represented three of these, greatly enlarged. Among the Crustacea that live in damp places on land the So\v-bugs, Oniscidce (O-nis'ci-dae), are most often- seen. These frequently occur about water-soaked wood ; and are often mistaken, by students begin- ning the study of Entomology, for insects or Myria- pods. Figure 5 represents a Sow-bug. On the sea-coast an immense number of forms of Crustacea occur. Class ARACHNIDA (A-rach'ni-da). Scorpions, Harvestmen, Spiders, Mites, and others. The members of this class are air-breathing A rtJiropods, in which the head and thorax are grown together, forming a cephalothorax, which have four pairs of legs jit ted for ivalk- ing, and which have no antenna. The Arachnida abound wherever insects occur, and are often mistaken for insects. But they can be easily distin- guished by the characters given above, even in those cases where an exception occurs to some one of them. The more important of the exceptions are the following: In the Sol- pugida the head is distinct from the thorax ; as a rule the young of mites have only six legs, but a fourth pair are added during growth ; and in the gall mites (Phytoptus) there are only four legs. In the Arachnida we find only simple eyes. The cephalothorax (ceph-a-lo-tho'rax) bears six pairs of INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RE LA TIVES. cephalothorax of a spider : ;'<* ^ After Marx.) drag after them their egg-sacs as described above ; and 42 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. when the young hatch they climb on their mother's back, and are carried about for a time. The females of the genus Dolomcdes (Dol-o-me'des), which also belongs to this family, carry their egg-sac in their mandibles until the young are ready to hatch. At this time the mother fastens the egg- sac in a bush, and spins a web of irregular threads about it, among which the young spiders remain for a time. Family ATTID/E (At'ti-dse). The Jumping Spiders. The Jumping Spiders are of medium size, with a short body and short stout legs (Fig. 49). They are common on plants, logs, fences, and the sides of buildings. They are very apt to attract attention by their pecul- iar appearance ; their short stout legs, bright colors, conspicuous eyes, and quick, jumping movements being very different from those of ordinary spiders. The eyes are arranged in three or four rows ; FlG - 4?-~fl itus the front middle pair are the largest, and are nutilus. (From Re or A onCot^ very conspicuous. These self-possessed spiders ton insects.) are a ble to stare an ordinary observer out of countenance. They move sidewise or backward with great ease p and can jump a long distance. They make no webs except nests in which they hide in winter or when moulting or laying eggs. In certain members of this family the body is longer than in the typical forms, and ant-like in appearance. Order AcARINA (Ac-a-ri'na). The Mites. In this order the abdomen is unsegmented and fused with the thorax, giving the entire body a more or less sac- like appearance. In many the body is marked by numerous INSECTS AND THEIR NEAR RELATIVES. 43 transverse, fine lines, which are so impressed as to appear like the divisions between minute segments (Fig. 52). The majority of mites are very small ; but some, as certain Ticks, are of considerable size. With the exception of a single family the members of which bring forth living young, all mites are produced from eggs. As a rule, the newly-hatched mites have only three pairs of legs; but a fourth pair are added during growth. In Phytoptus, which infests plants, there are only two pairs of legs. The mode of life of the different members of this order varies greatly : some are parasitic upon animals ; others infest living plants ; and many feed upon dead animal or vegetable matter, thus acting as scavengers. Among the mites that are parasitic upon animals are the various Ticks, which are very common in the warmer parts of our country. Figure 50 rep- resents the Cattle-tick of the Southern States. > ^/i'*fC*l It should be remembered in this connection that the so-called Sheep-tick is a true insect, FIG. S o. The , , . , j TV Cattle-tick, fe- belonging to the order Diptera. male. The Itch-mite is a well-known parasite, infesting man and causing the disease known as the itch. The sensation character- istic of this disease is due to the burrowing of the mites in the skin ; and the efficiency of sulphur oint- F.G. si.-An Itch-mite :"a, from ment in checking this disease is below; b, from above. due to the fact that by the use of it the mites are killed. Figure 51 represents an itch-mite greatly enlarged. Parasitic mites are frequently found attached to insects ; a common species occurs beneath the wings of locusts. The best known of the mites that infest plants is the one commonly called the Red Spider. This lives upon house- plants ; and in the warmer parts of the country, where there 44 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. is a dry season, it infests fruit-trees in the open air. As it thrives only in a dry atmosphere, it can be subdued upon house-plants by a liberal use of water. When it occurs upon plants in the open air it can be combated with any of the washes found useful in destroying scale insects. Some of the mites that infest plants produce galls. These galls are of various forms, but differ from those pro- duced by gall-flies (Family Cynipida of the Order Hynicii- optera] in having open mouths, from which the young mites escape. A common disease of the pear, known as the pear-leaf blister, is produced by a four-legged mite, PJiytoptus pyri (Phy-top'tus py'ri) (Fig. 52). The blisters characteristic of FIG. 52. Phytoptus pyri, greatly enlarged. the disease are swellings of the leaf, within which there is a cavity affording a residence for the mites. Figure 53 repre- FIG. 53. Diagram of gali of Phytoptus pyri : g, gall; , , normal structure of leaf ; /ns, third stage. (After Emerton.) FIG. 60. Nymph of Melanoplus, fourth stage. (After Ernerton.) FIG. 61 Nymph of Melanoplus, fifth stage. (After Emerton.) FIG. 6-2.Melanoplus, adult. in size from time to time till the adult state is reached (Figs. 57 to 62). During this development there is no point at which the insect passes into a quiescent state corresponding to the chrysalis state of a butterfly. Those insects which, like the locust, when they emerge from the egg resemble in form the adult, but still undergo some change, are said to un- dergo an incomplete metamorphosis. In other words, after leaving the egg they do not undergo a complete change of form. Complete Metamorphosis. Still other insects, like the but- 52 7W.fi: STUDY OF INSECTS. terflies, beetles, bees, and flies, leave the egg in an entirely different form from that which they assume when they reach maturity. A butterfly begins its active life as a caterpillar. It feeds and grows, and when full grown changes to a chrys- salis. In this stage it has very little resemblance to a cater- pillar. After a time there bursts forth from the chrysalis shell the butterfly, which looks very little like the chrysalis, and still less like the caterpillar from which it came. In a similar way, from the egg laid by a fly upon a piece of meat there hatches, not a fly, but a footless, worm-like maggot. This when fully grown changes to a quiescent object corre- sponding to the chrysalis of a butterfly. Later from this ob- ject there escapes a winged fly like that which laid the egg. Those insects, like the butterflies and flesh-flies, which when they emerge from the egg bear almost no resemblance in form to the adult insect, are said to undergo a complete met- amorphosis. In other words, the change of form undergone by the insect is a complete one. How Insects grow Molting. The skin of an insect is hard- ened more or less by a horny substance known as cldtine (chi'tine). This hardening usually occurs to a much greater extent in adult insects than it does in the young. But in all the skin becomes so firm that it cannot stretch enough to allow for the growth of the insect. The result is, that from time to time an in- sect's skin becomes too small for it, and must be shed. But before this is done a new skin is formed beneath the old one; then the old skin bursts open, and the insect crawls forth, clothed in a soft skin, which stretches to accommodate the increased size of the animal. Very soon, however, this new skin becomes hardened with chitine, and after a time FIG. 62/1. Exuviae of nymph of Dragon-fly, it in turn must be shed. This shedding of the skin is termed molting, and the cast skin is some- HEXAPODA. 53 times referred to as the exuvice (ex-u'vi-ae). Insects differ greatly as to the number of times they molt : many species molt only four or five times, while others are known to molt more than twenty times. Figure 62^ represents the cast skin of a Dragon-fly clinging to a reed. The Egg. This is the first stage in the existence of any insect, although in some few instances the egg remains in the body of the mother till it hatches. But almost always the eggs are laid by the mother insect on or near the food which gives nourishment to the young. Many of the most interesting habits of insects are connected with the care of the eggs by the parent. The eggs may have smooth oval shells ; but often the shells are beautifully ribbed FIG. 6 3 . Egg of cotton-worm, greatly enlarged. ( From the Author's Report and pitted (rig. 63), and some- on Cotton insects.) times they are ornamented with spines, and are frequently exquisitely colored. The Larva. This is the second stage of an insect's life, and is the form that hatches from the egg. Familiar exam- ples of larvae are caterpillars, maggots, and grubs (Fig. 64). FIG. 64. A caterpillar, the larva of a moth. In fact, nearly all the creatures commonly known as worms are larvae of insects. Away from the ocean we find but few worms, except earthworms, leeches, " hair-snakes," and worm parasites in the intestines of men and animals. Nearly all the rest, except millipedes and centipedes, are larvae of insects, and finally change to forms with wings. 54 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The larval stage is devoted to growth/ the sole business of a larva being to eat and grow. All molting, because of in- creased size, is done in the larval stage, later molts are simply for change of shape. The Pupa. This is the third stage in the life of an in- sect, and is ordinarily a period of inaction, except that rapid and wonderful changes go on within the body. Very few pupae, like those of mosquitoes, are active. Usually pupje have no power of moving around, but many of them can squirm when disturbed. When the last skin of the larva is thrown off the pupa is re- vealed ; it is an oblong object, and frequently apparently headless and footless. In many pupae the skin is a shiny covering like porcelain. If a pupa be examined closely the antennae and legs and wings may be seen ; these are folded up closely and soldered to the breast in the case of the moths and butterflies (Fig. 65), but free in case of the bees, ants, and beetles. The Chrysalis. This term is often applied to the pupa of a butterfly. The word is derived from a Greek word mean- ing gold, and came into use because of the golden dots and markings on many of the butterfly pupse. The Cocoon. Many larvae, especially those of moths, when full grown, spin about the body a silken case, so that when they change to helpless pupae they may be protected from enemies, and from rain and snow ; these silken cases are called cocoons. They are frequently made within a rolled leaves (Fig. 66), or beneath grass and rubbish on the ground, or in cells below the ground. Some hairy caterpil- lars make cocoons largely of their own hairs, which they fasten together with a film of silk. The Nymph. The terms larva and pupa are only ap- plied to the early stages of those insects that have a com- HEXAPODA. 55 plete metamorphosis; for in the case of other insects there is no distinct pupa stage. When reference is made to the young of an insect that undergoes an incomplete metamor- FIG. 66. A large cocoon within a rolled leaf. phosis it is called a nyjiiph. This term is applied to all stages of such an insect from the time they hatch from the egg until they shed their skin for the last time. When a nymph first hatches it has no signs of wings ; but after it molts several times two projections appear on each side of the thorax. These projections become larger and larger, and more wing-like in form with each successive molt. Usually the change in the size of these organs, between the last nymph stage and the adult stage, is much greater than that of any previous molt. With the nymphs of certain families, dragon-flies, crickets, grasshoppers, and locusts, the front pair of developing wings extend back beneath the hind pair instead of covering them ; and by this inverted position of the wings the nymphs may be distinguished from the adults, even in those cases where the adults have only rudimentary wings. The Adult. This is the last stage or the mature form of the insect. Almost all adult insects except Thysanura have wings, although there are numerous exceptions to the rule ; for there are many cases where wings have been lost through disuse. An insect never grows after it reaches the adult stage, and therefore never molts. There is a popular belief that a small fly will grow into a large fly, but this is not true, for after any insect gets its perfect wings it can 56 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. grow no larger, except that in case of females the body may be distended by the growth of eggs within it. While many adults eat more or less, it is only to sustain life, and not for growth. Indeed, many adult insects take very little food, and some have lost their mouth-parts entirely, through disuse. The adult stage usually lasts for a considerably shorter time than the larval or nymph stages. In fact, it seems planned in the economy of nature that the grown-up insects should live only long enough to lay eggs, and thus secure the perpetuation of the species. THE EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. The subject of insect anatomy is separated into two divi- sions : one, treating of the structure of the body-wall or skeleton ; the other, of the internal organs. The former is termed external anatomy ; the latter, internal anatomy. In our own bodies we find a central framework or skele- ton, about which are arranged the muscles, blood-vessels, nerves, and other organs. But insects are constructed on an entirely different plan: with them the supporting skele- ton is outside, and the muscles, nerves, and other organs are within this skeleton. The difference can be well seen if the figure showing the internal structure of the leg of a May-beetle (Fig. 67) be compared with one of our own limbs, either arm or leg. FIG. 67. Leg of May-beetle. (After Straus-Durckheim.) The body of an insect is built on the same plan as are its legs. The outside of the body is more or less firm, being hardened by chitine ; and this firm outer wall supports the muscles and other organs, thus serving as a skeleton. The skeleton is therefore, in general outline, a hollow cylinder. HEXAPODA. 57 This hardening of the body- wall is not continuous, but takes place in a series of more or less regular, ring-like bands, which give the well-known seg- mented appearance characteristic of insects, and the animals closely FIG. es. A Larva, allied to them. Between the hardened ring-like segments o o the body-wall remains soft and flexible. In this way provi- sion is made fcr the various motions of the body. The ring-like nature of the segments of the body is best seen in larvae (Fig. 68), and in the hinder part of an adult insect (Fig. 69). The movements of the legs, antennas, and certain other appendages are provided for in the same way ; each one is a cylinder made up of several segments, and between these seg- ments the wall of the cylinder remains flexible. When a single segment of the body is examined, the hardened portion is not found to be a continuous ring, but is seen to be made up of several portions more FIG. 6 9 . A Mole Cricket, or less movableupon each other. Such a hardened portion of the body-wall is termed a sclcritc (scle'rite). The sclerites constitute the greater part of the body-wall, the soft membranous portions separating them being in most cases narrow. Usually these narrow portions are mere lines ; they are then called sutures (sut'urs). Frequently the sutures become entirely effaced. We are therefore often unable to distinguish certain sclerites in one species of insect which we know to exist in another. In such cases the effaced sutures are said to be obsolete. If the central portion or thorax of an adult insect be examined, numerous sclerites and sutures can be observed (Fig. 70). THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The subject of external anatomy of insects consists very largely in a study of the sclerites of which the different seg- ments of the body and of its appendages are composed. This part of the subject is quite difficult, and will not be discussed here. It is treated at length in a more advanced text-book by the senior author.* y FIG. 70. Side-view of Locust with wings removed FIG. 71. Wasp, with head, thorax, and abdomen separated. The segments of the body in a fully developed insect are grouped into three regions : head, thorax, and abdomen (Fig. 71). In the larval state this grouping of the segments is not well shown. The Head and its Appendages. The head is the first of the three regions of the body. It is supposed to be formed of several body-segments grown together; but entomologists differ in their views as to the number of segments that have entered into its composition. The head bears the compound eyes, the simple eyes, the antennae, and the mouth-parts. The Compound Eyes. On each side of the head of an adult insect is an organ, which is recognized at once as an eye. But when one of these eyes is examined u-ith a microscope it is found to present FIG. 72. Part of com- ..,.,. pound eye, greatly en- an appearance very different from that of larged. , ..... tne eye of higher animals ; its surface is divided into a large number of six-sided divisions * An Introduction to Entomology by John Henry Comstock by the Comstock Publishing Co., Ithaca, N. Y. Published. HEXAPODA. 59 -JC (Fig. 72). A study of the internal structure of this organ has shown that each of these hexagonal divi- sions is the outer end of a distinct eye (Fig. 73). Hence what at first appears to be a single eye is _ really an organ composed of hundreds of eyes ; it is termed, therefore, a compound eye. Each of the small eyes of which a compound eye is composed is termed an ocellus (o-cel'lus) (plural ocelli]. The number of ocelli of which a com- pound eye is composed varies greatly : there may be not more than fifty, as in certain ants, p- or there may be many thousand, as in a but- terfly or a dragon-fly. Compound eyes are not fQund in larvae, though they may possess a group of simple eyes on each side of the head. The Simple Eyes. In addition to the com- pound eyes, many adult insects possess simple eyes. These are situated between the com- pound eyes. They vary in number from one to four; the most common number is three (see Fig. 71). The simple eyes are usually termed ocelli ; sometimes, stcinmata (stem'ma-ta). When the term ocelli is used in descriptive works, if there is nothing in the context to indicate the contrary, it is almost invariably applied to the simple eyes, and not to the ele- ments of the compound eyes. In the same way the term eye usually refers to the com- pound eyes, unless otherwise indicated by the context. The Antenna. The antennae are a pair of jointed appendages inserted in the head in front of the eyes or between them. They vary in form. In some insects they are thread-like, consisting of a series of similar segments; in others certain segments are greatly modified in form. FIG. Three ocelli, with reti- nulae, from the compound eye of a May-beetle. (After Grenach- er.) The pig- ment has been dissolved away from two of them. F, corneal facet; A", crystalline cone;/, pigment- sheath ; P, chief pigment-cell;/", pigment-cells of the second order; R, retinulse. 6o THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The various forms of antennae are designated by special terms. The more common of these forms are represented in Figure 74. These are as follows : 1. Setaceous (se-ta'ceous) or bris- tle-like, in which the segments are successively smaller and smaller, the whole organ tapering to a point. 2. Filiform (fiTi-form) or thread- like, in which each segment is of nearly uniform thickness throughout its length ; and the antenna as a whole tapers gradually, if at all, to- wards the tip. 3. Moniliform (mo-nil'i-form) or necklace-form, in which the segments are more or less globose, suggesting a string of beads. 4. Serrate (ser'rate) or saw-like, in which the segments are triangular, and project like the teeth of a saw. 5. Pectinate (pec'ti-nate) or comb-like, in which the seg- ments have long processes on one side, like the teeth of a comb, or on both sides, like a feather. 6. Clavate (cla'vate) or club-shaped, in which the seg- ments become gradually broader, so that the whole organ assumes the form of a club. 7. Capitate (cap'i-tate) or with a head, in which the terminal segment or segments form a large knob. 8. Lamellate (Jam'el-late), in which the segments that compose the knob are extended on one side into broad plates. TJic Idontli-parts. No set of organs in the body of an in- sect vary in form to a greater degree than do the mouth-parts. Thus with some the mouth is formed for biting, while with others it is formed for sucking. Among the biting insects some are predaceous, and have jaws fitted for seizing and FIG. 74. Various forms of an- tennae. HEXAPODA. 6l tearing their prey ; others feed upon vegetable matter, and have jaws for chewing this kind of food. Among the suck- ing insects the butterfly merely sips the nectar from flowers, while the mosquito needs a powerful instrument for piercing its victim. In this place the typical form of the mouth- parts as illustrated by the biting insects is described. The various modifications of it presented by the sucking insects are described later, in the discussion of the characters of those insects. In the biting insects, the mouth-parts consist of an upper lip, the labruin (la'brum) (Fig. 75, 8); an under lip, the labutm (la'bi-um) (Fig. 75, 12); and two pairs of jaws between them. These jaws open sidewise, instead of in a vertical direction, as do the jaws of the higher animals. The upper pair of jaws are called the mandibles (man'di-bles) (Fig. 75, 10); the lower pair, the maxilla (max-iTlae) (Fig. 75, u). There may be also within the mouth one or two tongue-like organs, the ^////^rj//z^(ep-i-phar'ynx) and hypopharynx (hy - po - phar'y nx) The epipharynx is attached to the upper wall of the cavity of the mouth, and the hypopharynx to the lower. The position of the hypopharynx is quite analogous, therefore, to that of our tongue. The mandibles vary much in form, but usually each consists of a single sclerite. The maxillae of biting insects, on the other FIG. 7 6.-Maxiiia of a hand, are very complicated organs, each com- posed of several sclerites. Each maxilla bears an appendage consisting of several segments ; these FIG. 75. Mouth-parts of the Red- legged Locust. 62 THE STUDY OF INSECTS, appendages are termed the maxillary palpi. In the maxillae of certain biting insects, as the grasshoppers and the ground beetles, there is an appendage usually consisting of two segments : this is the galca (ga'le-a) or outer lobe. In some of these insects, as the ground-beetles and the tiger- beetles, the galea is shaped like a palpus, and thus there appears to be two pairs of maxillary palpi (Fig. 76). The labium is furnished with a pair of jointed appendages ; these are the labial palpi (Fig. 75, 11, Anal. et al. } FIG. 78. Diagram of wing, showing margins, angles, and veins. VIII FIG 5:9. Diagram of wing of moth, showing the arrangement of the veins ; veins TV and VI are wanting. 66 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The principal veins are indicated by Roman numerals, and when these veins are branched, the branches are indi- cated by Arabic indices appended to the Roman numeral. Thus the branches of radius are designated as III,, III 2 , III 3 , etc. (Fig. 79). Figure 78 represents the fore-\ving of a butterfly (Danais), and Figure 79 the two wings of a moth (Castnia). In all butterflies and moths veins IV and VI are wanting, and in all butterflies and in many moths the basal part of vein V is also wanting. The arrows in Figure 78 indicate the po- sition of the remnants of this part of vein V. In the hind wing of the moth figured, vein V, has become joined to vein III, so that it appears to be a branch of it ; and in the but- terfly vein V 3 appears to be a branch of vein VII, although a short stump, indicated by the lower arrow, shows its former position, in ancient butterflies, before the loss of the basal part of vein V. The Abdomen and its Appendages, The abdomen is the third or caudal region of the body. Its segments are more simple, distinct, and ring-like than those of the other regions. The number of segments of o o which it appears to be composed varies greatly. In the Cuckoo-flies (Clirysididiz] there are usually only three or four visible, while in many other insects nine appear. Except in the lowest order of insects (Tkysanura) the abdomen of the adult bears no locomotive appendages. But many larvae have fleshy appendages which aid in locomotion : these are termed prolegs. In the adult the end of the body in many families is furnished with jointed filaments the cerci, and caudal setce. Frequently also the body is furnished in the male with organs for clasping the claspers ; and in 'the female with saws, piercers, or borers the ovipositor. In the female of certain insects there is a sting, a modified ovipositor, which is used as an organ of defence ; and the abdomen of plant- lice and certain other insects bears a pair of tubes or tuber- HEX A POD A. 67 cles, through which honey dew is excreted : these are com- monly called honey-tubes ; they are also termed cornicles, nectaries, or siphuncles. THE INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. (For advanced st 'u dents.) As has been shown in the preceding pages, the body-wall serves as a skeleton, being hard, and giving support to the other organs of the body. This skeleton may be represented, therefore, as a hollow cylinder. We have now to consider the arrangement and the general form of the organs contained in this cylinder. For the details of the structure of th internal organs the student is referred to more special works. The accompanying diagram (Fig. 80), which represents a vertical, longitudinal section of the body, will enable the student to gain an idea of the relative position of some of the more important organs. The parts shown in the diagram are as follows: The body-wall, or skeleton FIG. 80. Diagram showing the relation of the internal organs. is] ; this is made up of a series of overlapping segments ; that part of it between the segments is thinner, and is not hardened with chitine, thus remaining flexible and allowing for the movements of the body. Just within the body-wall, and attached to it, are represented a few of the muscles (in) ; it will be seen that these muscles are so arranged that the contraction of those on the lower side of the body would bend it down, while the contraction of those on the opposite side would act in the opposite direction. The alimentary canal (a) occu- pies the centre of the body, and extends from one end to the other. The heart (7t) is a tube open at both ends, and lying between the alimentary canal and the muscles of the back. The central part of the nervous system (//) is a series of small masses of nervous matter connected by two longitudinal cords: one of these masses, the brain, lies in the head above the alimentary canal ; the others are situated, 68 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. PLATE II. A CATERPILLAR {Cossvs (After Lyonet.) FlG. i. Caterpillar opened on the ventral middle line. FIG. 2. Caterpillar opened on the dorsal middle line. i, principal longitudinal tracheae; 2, central nervous sys- tem: 3, aorta ; 4, longitudinal dorsal muscles; 5, longitudinal ventral muscles; 6. wings of the heart; 7, tracheal trunks arising near spiracles; 8, reproductive organs ; 9, vertical muscles : 10, last abdominal ganglion. HEXAPODA. 69 one in each segment, between the alimentary canal and the layer of muscles of the ventral side of the body ; the two cords connecting these masses, or ganglia, pass one on each side of the oesophagus to the brain. The reproductive organs (r) lie in the cavity of the abdo- men and open near the caudal end of the body. The respiratory organs are omitted from this diagram for the sake of simplicity. The J\fiiscitlar System. We find in insects a wonderfully large number of muscles. Those that move the segments of the body form several layers just within the body-wall. The two figures on Plate II represent two caterpillars which have been split open lengthwise, one on the middle line of the back and one on the opposite side ; in each case the alimentary canal has been removed, so that only those organs that are attached quite closely to the body-wall are left. From a study of these figures some idea can be obtained of the number and arrange- ment of these muscles. It should be borne in mind, however, that only a single layer of muscles is represented in these figures the layer which would be seen if a caterpillar were opened in the way indicated. When these muscles are cut away many other muscles are found ex- tending obliquely in various directions between these muscles and the body-wall. The muscles of insects appear very differently from those (the lean meat) of higher animals. In insects the muscles are either colorless and transparent, or yellowish white ; and they are soft, almost of a gelatinous consistence. When hardened by alcohol or otherwise, and examined with a microscope, they are seen to be crossed by numerous transverse lines, like the voluntary muscles of Vertebrates. As a rule, the muscles of insects are composed of an immense number of distinct fibres, which are not enclosed in tendinous sheaths as with Vertebrates. Rut the muscles that move the appendages of the body are furnished with a tendon at the end farthest from the body (Fig. 81). FIG. 81. Leg of May-beetle. (After Straus-Durckheim.) Notwithstanding the soft and delicate appearance of the muscles of insects, they are really very strong. One has only to observe the power of leaping possessed by many species to be convinced of this. THE STUDY OF INSECTS. PLATE III. a JEWITT.M A COCKROACH (Periplaneta orientalis). (From Rolleston). antennae; b\, 62, 63, tibiae; c, anal cerci ; , interior of heart showing valves : c. ventral aspect of heart and wing-muscles the muscles are represented as prolongation cut away from the caudal part of the heart; d, dorsal aspect of heart. through the thorax and into the head, is termed the aorta. The blood is forced by the heart through the aorta into the head, where it escapes into the body cavity. From this point it flows through the body cavity in regular streams, which have definite di- rections, but which are not included in vessels. They, like the ocean currents, are definite streams with liquid shores. The blood is usually colorless, or slightly tinged with green ; but its circulation is made conspicuous by the movements of the large corpuscles with which it abounds. In transparent insects it can be seen pouring forth from the cephalic end of the aorta, bathing first the brain, and then passing to all parts of the body, even out into the appendages. By tracing the course of any one of these currents it will be found to flow, sooner or later, to the cavity between the wings of the heart and the back in which the heart rests, and from which it receives its blood. The Nervous System. The central part of the nervous system, as HEX APOD A. 73 already indicated, consists of a ganglion in the head above the oesoph- agus, and of a series of ganglia, typically one for each segment of the body, lying on the floor of the body cav- ity, and connected by two longitudinal cords. In the head, one of these cords passes on each side of the oesophagus, from the brain to another ganglion in the head below the oesophagus, thus forming a nervous collar about the alimentary canal. From each ganglion nerves arise, which supply the ad- jacent parts ; and from the thoracic ganglia nerves extend to the legs and wings. This series of ganglia is really a double one; but each pair of ganglia are more or less closely united on the middle line of the body, and often appear as a single ganglion. Figure 84 gives a general view of the nervous system of Corydalis cormita. From the brain (a) two large nerves extend to the compound eyes, and a smaller pair to the antennae; the sub- cesophageal ganglion (b] supplies the mouth- parts with nerves ; and each of the thoracic and abdominal ganglia supplies its segment FIG. 84. Nervous system of of the body. Corydalis. (After Leidy.) Hou> Insects Breathe The Respiratory System. A common mis- take made by beginners in the study of Entomology is to suppose that insects breathe through the mouth as do the higher animals. Many a beginner has carefully poured chloroform on the head of an insect in the expectation of killing it in that way, and has been sur- prised at his poor success. The truth is, insects breathe through their sides. If an insect be carefully examined, there can be found along the sides of the body a series of openings (Fig. 85). These are the openings through which FIG. 85. Side-view of Locust with wings removed. the air passes into the respiratory system and are termed spiracles (spir'a-cles). 74 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The number of spiracles varies greatly in different insects. There is, however, never more than one pair on a single segment of the body. They do not occur on the head, but are borne by each of the thoracic segments, and by the first eight abdominal segments. Thus there are eleven segments that may bear spiracles, but they are always lacking on some one or more of these. These spiracles are either simple openings into the respiratory system, or are provided with valves, sieves, or fringes of hair for the exclusion of dirt. They lead into a system of air-tubes termed tra- dit\T (tra'che-ae). The accompanying figures will indicate the distri- bution of the main trunks of these tracheae in a cockroach (Figs. 86 and FIG. 86. Tracheal system of Cockroach. The dorsal integument removed and the alimentary canal in place. (After Miall and Denny.) FIG. 87. Tracheal system of Cockroach. The alimentary canal removed to show the ventral tracheal communications. (After Miall and Denny,) 87). There is a short trunk arising from each spiracle ; these are all connected together by a large longitudinal trunk on each side of the body, and by numerous transverse trunks. From these large tracheae there arise a great number of smaller ones, not shown in the figures, which branch and subdivide, and extend to all parts of the body. When one dissects an insect the viscera are found to be connected together by the ramifications of these tracheae, so that in order to remove any organ it is necessary to cut some of them. The smaller branches of the tracheae are exceedingly minute, and are intimately associated with the various tissues. By means of these fine tracheal trunks the air is carried to the tissues ; hence the blood plays a much smaller part in respiration than it does in the Vertebrates. Although insects are, strictly speaking, air-breathing animals, many of them, as is well known, live in the water. The study of the ways in which aquatic insects breathe is a very interesting one ; it HEXAPODA. 7S presents to us many wonderful modifications of structure. Some of the more common of these are described in subsequent pages of this book ; in this place we can only make a few generalizations. The various modes of respiration of aquatic insects may be classi- fied under two heads : first, those in which the insects obtain air from above the surface of the water; second, those in which the insects breathe the air that is mechanically mixed with the water. With many aquatic insects the spiracles open beneath the wings, which are folded upon the abdomen. The insect, by coming to the surface of the water and lifting the tip of its wings, forms a cavity be- neath them, into which the air rushes. The insect can then swim through the water, carrying this air with it in a position where it can be respired. When the air becomes impure, the insect rises to the surface, forces out the air from beneath its wings, and takes in a new supply. Water-beetles and aquatic bugs afford familiar examples of this mode of respiration. Some insects are provided with long tubes connected with their spiracles, by means of which they can draw their supply of air from above the surface of the water while they crawl upon the bottom of shallow ponds. Our most common illustrations of this are bugs of the family Nepidce; but the most remarkable development of this kind is exhibited by certain Dipterous larvae of the family Syrphidce, known as Rat-tailed Maggots. Although there are many insects that live in the water and draw their supply of air from above it, the greater number of aquatic insects breathe, as do fishes, the air that is mixed with the water. This is accomplished by organs known as trachea! gills. These are hair-like or more or less plate-like expansions of the body-wall, abundantly supplied with tracheae (Fig. 88). These tracheae divide and subdivide, and their terminations or fine branches are separated from the water that bathes the organ only by its thin walls. In this way the air contained in the tracheae is separated from the air in the water only by a delicate membrane, which admits of the transfer of gases between them. It will be observed that the difference between a tracheal gill and a true gill (as of fishes, Crustacea, etc.) is that the true gill is supplied with vessels containing blood, which is purified by being brought in contact with the air in the water, while the tracheal gill is supplied with tracheae FlG / containing air to be purified. Tracheal gills are usually borne by the abdomen, some- A S rion. times by the thorax, and in case of one genus of Stone-flies by the 76 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. head. They pertain almost exclusively to the immature stages of insects ; but Stone-flies of the genus Pteronarcys retain them through- out their existence. Tracheal gills vary greatly in form ; in Corydalis they are hair-like, and occur in tufts near the lateral margins of the abdominal seg- ments; in the Cadd ice-worms they are thread-like, more or less branched, and irregularly distributed over the surface of the abdo- men ; and in certain Dragon-flies they are in the form of large plate- like caudal appendages. (Fig. 88.) The Reproductive Organs. The reproductive organs are situated in the abdomen, as represented in Figure So. There is a set on each side of the body ; but the two sets usually open by a common tube near the caudal end of the body. In the May-flies and in the Ear- wigs, however, the reproductive organs of each side have a distinct opening. Thus May-flies are often found with two bunches of eggs projecting from the caudal end of the body. All insects are developed from eggs ; but there are some appar- ent exceptions. Thus many flies retain their eggs until after they are hatched, if a proper place for laying them is not found earlier; and in some flies (the Pitpipara) the young attain a considerable de- velopment before they are born. In the Plant-lice (Aphidtdce) there is a remarkable alternation of reproduction by budding with the sexual reproduction. This is described more fully in the account of that family. THE ORDERS OF THE HEXAPODA. (For advanced students.*) The Class Hexapoda, or Insects, is divided in this work into nine- teen orders. This number is somewhat greater than what has been commonly adopted heretofore. But we believe that in the earlier classifications forms were brought together in the same order that are not closely related, and that consequently the present classifica- tion represents better the true relationship of the groups of insects. There has been some hesitation on the part of many entomolo- gists in adopting this division of certain of the old orders, merely for the reason that they felt that the old classification was simpler. But we do not share in this feeling. It seems to us that it is easier for the student to learn the characters of a large number of well-defined groups than it is to learn those of a smaller number of vaguely- defined groups. HEX A POD A. 77 In arranging the orders in a linear series, as must be done in a book, it is impossible to indicate in a satisfactory way either the rela- tion of the orders to each other or the relative rank of the orders. An effort is made to place near together closely allied orders, and to treat first those that are more simple or primitive or generalized in structure, and last those that are more specialized. But this plan could be fully carried out only by having several parallel columns on the pages of the book, each representing a distinct line of descent, an arrangement which, to say the least, is impracticable. What has been done in this work is to place first the Thysanura, which is doubtless the most primitive order. Then follow first the orders that undergo an incomplete metamorphosis, and last, those that undergo a complete metamorphosis. Within these two groups of orders those with biting mouth-parts are placed first, and these are followed by those with sucking mouth-parts, except that in the second group the Coleoptera and Hymenoptera are placed last for want of a better position. We do not intend to indicate by this that these two orders are closely related, or that they are more specialized than the Diptera. In fact, with regard to at least five of the orders of insects (Hemip- tera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera, and Hymenoptera), it seems idle to us to discuss which is the more highly specialized. Each has been specialized in a direction peculiar to itself ; and to attempt to describe which is the "highest " seems as futile as the discussion by children of the question : " Which is better, sugar or salt ? " We give below a table for use in classifying specimens. This table is merely intended to aid the student in determining to which of the orders a specimen that he is examining belongs. No effort has been made to indicate in the table the relation of the orders to each other. TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE ORDERS OF HEXAPODA.* (This table includes only adult insects.} A. Wingless or with rudimentary wings. B. Mandibles and maxillae retracted within the cavity of the head so that only their apices are visible, p. 82 THYSANURA. BB. Mandibles and maxillae more or less prominent and fitted for biting. (See BBB also.) C. Head with long, trunk-like beak. (Storeus.) p. 184. MECOPTERA. * See note at bottom of p. 10. THE STUDY OF INSECTS. CC. Head not prolonged into a trunk. D. Louse-like insects of small size ; body less than one-sixth inch in length. E. Antennae with not more than five segments. (Bird-lice.) p. I0 o MALLOPHAGA. EE. Antennae with many segments. (Book-lice.) p. 98. CORRODENTIA. DD. Insects of various forms, but not louse-like, and, except in the case of some ants, with the body more than one-sixth inch in length. E. Abdomen with short, conical, compressed, many-jointed caudal appendages. (Cockroaches.} p. IO4...ORTHOPTERA. EE. Abdomen without jointed caudal appendages. F. Legs fitted for jumping. (Wingless Locusts, Grasshop- pers, and Crickets.} p. 104 ORTHOPTERA. FF. Legs fitted for running. G. Abdomen broadly joined to thorax. H. Body linear. (U'atting-sttcks.) p. 104. ORTHOPTERA. HH. Body white and somewhat ant-like in form. ( Term fs. ) p. 95 ISOPTERA. HHH. Body neither linear nor ant-like in form. ( H 'ing less Fire- fly et al. ) p. 494 Co LEOPTER A. GG. Base of abdomen strongly constricted. (Ants et al.} p. 599 HYMENOPTERA. BBB. Mouth-parts formed for sucking. C. Small abnormal insects in which the body is either scale-like or gall-like in form, or grub-like and clothed with wax. The waxy covering may be in the form of powder, of large tufts or plates, of a continuous layer, or of a thin scale, beneath which the insect lives. (Coccidce.} p. 121 HEMIPTERA. CC. Body more or less covered with minute scales, or with thick long hairs. Prothorax not free (i.e., closely united. with the mesothorax). Mouth-parts usually consisting of a long " tongue " rolled beneath the head. p. 191 LEPIDOPTERA. CCC. Body naked, or with isolated or bristle-like hairs. D. Prothorax not well developed, inconspicuous or invisible from above. Tarsi five-jointed. Mouth-parts developed into an unjointed trunk; palpi present, p. 413.. . DIPTERA. DD. Prothorax well developed. E. Body strongly compressed ; tarsi five-jointed. (Fleas} p. 490 SlPHONAPTERA. HEXAPODA. 79 EE. Body not compressed; tarsi one-, two , or three-jointed. F. Last joint of tarsi bladder-like or hoof-like in form and without claws ; mouth-parts forming a triangular, un- jbinted beak ; palpi present, p. 119 PHYSOPODA. FF. Last joint of tarsi not bladder-like, and furnished with one or two claws ; mouth-parts forming a slender, usually jointed beak; palpi apparently wanting, p. 121. HEMIPTERA. AA. Winged. (The wing-covers, elytra, of beetles and of earwigs are counted as wings in this table.) B. With two wings. C. Wings horny, leathery, or parchment-like. D. Mouth-parts formed for sucking. Wings leathery, short- ened, or membranous at the tip. p. 121 HEMIPTERA. DD. Mouth-parts formed for biting. Jaws distinct. E. \Vings horny, without veins. Hind legs not fitted for jumping, p. 494 COLEOPTERA. EE. Wings' parchment-like, with a network of veins. Hind legs fitted for jumping, p. 104 ORTHOPTERA. CC. Wings membranous. D. Abdomen with caudal filaments. Mouth-parts rudimentary. E. Hakeres wanting, p. 86 EPHEMERIDA. EE. Halteres present (males of Coccidce). p. 121. HEMIPTERA. DD. Abdomen without caudal filaments. Halteres in place of second wings. Mouth-parts formed for sucking, p. 413. DIPTERA. I>B. With four wings. C. The two pairs of wings unlike in structure. D. Front wings leathery at base, and membranous at tip, often overlapping. Mouth-parts formed for sucking, p. 121. HEMIPTERA. DD. Front wings of same texture throughout. E. Front wings horny or leathery, being veinless wing- covers. (Elytra) F. Abdomen with caudal appendages in form of movable forceps, p. 102 EUPLEXOPTERA. FF. Abdomen without forcep-like appendages, p. 494. COLEOPTERA. EE. Front wings leathery or parchment-like, with a network of veins. F. Under wings not folded. Mouth-parts formed for suck- ing, p. 121 HEMIPTERA. 8O THE STUDY OF INSECTS. FF. Under wings folded lengthwise. Mouth-parts formed for biting, p. 104 ORTHOPTERA. CC. The two pairs of wings similar, membranous. D. Last joint of tarsi bladder-like or hoof-like in form and without Claws. P- H9 - ..PHYSOPODA. DD. Last joint of tarsi not bladder-like. E. Wings entirely or for the greater part clothed with scales. Mouth parts formed for sucking, p. 191.. . LEPIDOPTERA. EE. Wings naked, transparent, or thinly clothed with hairs. F. Mouth-parts arising from the hinder part of the lower surface of the head, and consisting of bristle-like organs inclosed in a jointed sheath. (Homoptera^) p. 121. HEMIPTERA. FF. Mouth-parts in normal position. Mandibles not bristle-like. G. Wings net-veined, with many veins and cross-veins. H. Tarsi consisting of less than five segments. I. Antennae inconspicuous, awf-shaped, short and slender. J. First and second pairs of wings nearly the same length ; tarsi three-jointed, p. 89. ODONATA. I}. Second pair of wings either small or wanting; tarsi four-jointed, p. 86 EPHEMERIDA II. Antennae usually conspicuous, setiform, filiform clavate, capitate, or pectinate. J. Tarsi two- or three-jointed. K. Second pair of wings the smaller, p. 98. CORRODENTIA. KK. Second pair of wings broader, or at least of the same size as the first pair. p. 93. PLECOPTERA. J}. Tarsi four-jointed ; wings equal, p. 95. ISOPTERA. HH. Tarsi consisting of five segments. I. Abdomen with setiform, many-jointed anal fila- ments. (Certain May-flies) p. 86. EPHEMERIDA. II. Abdomen without many-jointed anal filaments. ]. Head prolonged into a trunk-like beak. p. 184 MECOPTERA. J. Head not prolonged into a beak. p. 175. NEUROPTERA. HEX A POD A. 8 1 GG. Wings with branching veins and comparatively few cross-veins, or veinless. H. Tarsi two- or three-jointed. I. Posterior wings smaller than the anterior. p. 98 CORRODENTIA. II. Posterior wings as large as or larger than the anterior ones. (Certain Stone-flies.} p. 93. PLECOPTERA. HH. Tarsi four- or five-jointed. I. Abdomen with setiform, many-jointed anal fila- ments. (Certain May-flies^ p. 86. EPHEMERIDA. II. Abdomen without many-jointed anal filaments. J. Prothorax horny. First wings larger than the second, naked or imperceptibly hairy. Second wings without, or with few, unusually simple, veins. Jaws (mandibles) well developed. Palpi small, p. 599 HYMENOPTERA. JJ. Prothorax membranous or, at the most, parchment-like. Second wings as large as or larger than the first, folded lengthwise, with many branching veins. First wings naked or thinly clothed with hair. Jaws (mandibles) in- conspicuous. Palpi long. Moth-like insects. p. 1 86 TRICHOPTERA. LIST OF ORDERS OF THE HEXAPODA. THYSANURA. HEMIPTERA. EPHEMERIDA. NEUROPTERA. OUONATA. MECOPTERA. PLECOPTERA. TRICHOPTERA. ISOPTERA. LEPIDOPTERA. CORRODENTIA. DIPTERA. MALLOPHAGA. SIPHONAPTERA. EUPLEXOPTERA COLEOPTERA. ORTHOPTERA. HYMENOPTERA. PHYSOPODA. CHAPTER IV. Order THYSANURA (Thys-a-nu'ra). Bristle-tails, Spring-tails, Fish-moths, and others. The members of this order arc wingless insects which undergo no metamorphosis, the larval form being- retained by the adult. The mandibles and maxilla are retracted within the cavity of the head, so that only their tips are visible ; they have, however, some freedom of motion, and can be used for biting and chewing soft substances. True compound eyes are rarely present ; but m some genera there is a group of simple eyes on each side of the head. The abdomen is sometimes furnished with rudimentary legs. Under stones and decayed leaves and wood, in the chinks of bark, among moss, in damp places, on snow or on pools, or sometimes in houses, are the members of this order to be found. They are for the most part very small insects, but sometimes they are nu- merous and lively enough to make up for their lack in size - The > r have no win s > but they can either run very FIG. 89. Mouth-parts of a Spring-tail, Ento- t f ,'nmr w/=>.-ir fm TJ-.^ mobryidte. (Drawn by J. M. Stedman, last Or jump Very tar. . lieir under the author's direction.) 8, labrum; _,->,, J.U r..,.-^ ot -~ no,i^1U, 4. 10, mandible; n, maxilla; 12, labium; 12^, mOUUl-partS are USUally tlt- labial palpus " ted for biting, but are very difficult to study, because they are retracted within the 82 THYSANURA. 83 cavity of the head, and also on account of the small size of the insects. Figure 89 represents them in place in the head, and also each separately. In certain respects these insects represent a connecting- link between the other six-footed insects (Hexapoda) and the Myriapods ; for many of the Thysanura have rudiments of legs on the abdomen. It is believed, therefore, that they are much like the first insects that appeared on the earth in ancient geological times. The Thysanura undergo no metamorphosis, the young resembling the adult in form. The name of the order is from two Greek words : thysanos, a tassel ; and our a, the tail. The Thysanura include two distinct types of insects; these are classed as suborders, and can be distinguished by the following table: TABLE OF THE SUBORDERS OF THE THYSANURA. A. With bristle-like and many-jointed appendages at the caudal end of the body (in a single genus these appendages are in the form of forceps, Fig. 91), and without a sucker on the ventral side of the abdomen, p. 83 CINURA. AA. With a forked sucker on the ventral side of the first abdominal segment. Abdomen with a springing apparatus near its caudal end, or without appendages, p. 84 COLLEMBOLA. Suborder ClNURA (Ci-nu'ra). The Bristle-tails. Often the careful housekeeper sees in the ironing-basket, or upon the book-shelf where she is dusting, a flash of light like a tiny thread of quicksilver, that usually vanishes as soon as seen. If she is experienced she knows that this streak of light is a little animal, half an inch long, whose body is clothed in shining scales like those of a fish. Hence she calls it a Fish- moth. Its scientific name is Lepisnia saccJiarina ; (Le-pis'ma sac-cha-ri'na) ; it is especially abundant in warm climates, 8 4 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. and often does damage to starched clothing, book-bindings, and sometimes loosens wall-paper by eating out the paste. Under a microscope the Fish-moth shows beautiful markings FlG. 91. Jafyx solifugi4s. (After Lubbock.) FlG. 90. Lcfisina sac- charina. (After Lub- bock.) 92. Ventral aspect Machilis, showing FIG. appendages on the shining scales ; and at the caudal end of the body are three long bristle-like appendages (Fig. 90), which suggest the common name Bristle-tail applied to members of this suborder. Figure 91 represents Japyx (Ja'pyx), a Bristle- tail in which the caudal appendages are in the form of horny forceps; and Figure 92 represents the lower side of Mac/iilis (Mach'i-lis), another Bristle-tail, found under stones and loose bark ; this genus has rudimentary abdominal legs as shown in the figure. Suborder COLLEMBOLA (Col-lem'bo-la). The Spring-tails. In the Spring in the Northern States, on bright sunny days when it is thawing, one often sees upon the snow thou- sands of tiny dark specks. In other places pools of still THYSANURA. 85 water appear to be covered by a moving mass of minute grains which become more active when disturbed. These masses as well as the dark specks on snow consist of thou- sands of little creatures that are provided with a wonderful means of jumping. There is on the end of the body a tail-like organ that is bent under when the insect is at rest, and that reaches almost to the head ; this when suddenly straightened throws the insect high in the air and several feet away. This action is like a spring-board jump, only these little fellows always carry their spring-boards with them, and have thus won the name of Spring-tails. The species upon snow, called the Snow-flea, Achorutes nivicola (Ach-o-ru'tes ni-vic'o-la), sometimes proves a nuisance in maple sugar-bushes by get- ting into the sap. Through a micro- scope a Spring-tail appears very ab- surd, it has long antennae and large, dark eye-spots on the face, which, to- gether with the longhair that sticks forward on the head and thorax, give the creature a look of solemn . FIG. g^.Pafirius fuscus. (After fierceness. Different species may Lubbock.) be found at almost any time of the year in damp places. Figure 93 represents one of these. In many forms the body is much more slender than in that figured. CHAPTER V. Order EPHEMERIDA (Eph-e-mer'i-da). The May-flics. The members of this order have delicate membranous wings t with a fine network of veins ; the fore wings are large, and the hind wings are much smaller or wanting. The month- parts are rudimentary. The metamorphosis is incomplete. The name of this order is from the Greek word cpliemeros, lasting but a day. It was given to these in- sects on account of the shortness of their lives after reaching the adult state.* The May-flies are easily dis- tinguished from other net-winded in- o o sects by the peculiar shape of the wings and the relative sizes of the two pairs (Fig. 94). The mouth-parts are nearly want- ing, as these insects eat nothing in the adult state ; the antennae are very small ; the abdomen is long, soft, and terminated by two or three many- Re. 9 4.-May-fly. jointed, thread-like appendages. In their metamorphoses these insects differ from all others in molting once after they have acquired wings fitted for flight. This order includes only a single family. * We have not adopted the name Plectoptera, which has been proposed for these insects, on account of its similarity to Plecoptera. 86 EPHEMERIDA. 8/ Family EPHEMERIDA (Eph-e-mer'i-dae). T/ie May-flies. In river or lake towns, during the warm evenings of late spring or early summer, the electric lights or street lamps are often darkened by myriads of insects that dash against them, and the pavements are made slippery by their dead bodies which have been trampled under foot. They are not the ordi- nary night-flying moths : if an individual of the thousands that cling to the posts and buildings in the vicinity of the light be examined, it will prove to be a delicate creature with dainty, trembling wings and two or three long, white, thread-like organs on the end of its body ; the body itself is so transparent that the blood within can be seen pulsating. The front wings are large and finely netted, and the hind wings are small or absent (Figs. 94, 95). Fl ' SQ fragile are these pale beings that they seem like phantoms rather than real insects. No wonder that poets have sung of them as the creatures that live only a day. It is true that their winged existence lasts often only a day or even a few hours ; but they have another life, of which the poet knows nothing. Down on the bottom of a stream, feeding on mud, water-plants, or other small insects, lives a little nymph with delicate, fringed gills along its sides and two or three long, many-jointed, and often feathery appendages on the end of the body (Fig. 96). It has strong legs and can both walk and swim. After about the ninth molt there may be twenty molts in all there appear on its thorax four little sacs which are the beginnings of wings ; with each molt these grow larger, until finally the last skin of the water-nymph is shed, and gills and mouth-parts are all left behind, and the insect comes forth, a winged May-fly. But there is still FIG. 96 Nymph ^. of May-fly, another change to be undergone. Ihe insect has not yet reached the adult state. After flying a ob THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. short distance it alights and sheds its skin again, a thin layer coming off from all parts of its body, even from its wings. After this the delicate creature is more fragile than before. It now has but one duty to perform in its brief life in the air, and that is to lay its eggs. These are sometimes laid on the surface of the water, and sometimes the mother wraps her wings about her like a diving-bell and goes down into the water and deposits her eggs on stones. The life of the nymph is from one to three years, according to the species. CHAPTER VI. Order ODONATA (Od-o-na'ta). The Dragon-flies. TJic members of this order have four membranous wings, which arc finely netted with veins ; the hind wings are as large or larger than the fore wings ; and each wing has near the middle of the front margin a joint-like structure, the nodus. The month-parts are formed for biting. The metamorphosis is incomplete. The name of this order is evidently from the Greek word odous, a tooth ; but the reason for applying it to these insects is obscure. FIG. 97. Libellula basalis. The Odonata are easily recognized by the form of their wings, which are long, narrow, and powerful; and, possess near the middle of the front margin of each a little notch 89 STUDY OF INSECTS. and a strong cross-vein. This structure resembles in ap- pearance a joint, and is consequently named the nodus. The mouth-parts are fitted for biting, these insects being voracious feeders in the adult state. Both the upper lip and the lower lip are large, and the two nearly enclose the jaws FIG. 99. Nymph of Dragon-fly, Agrioninee. when at rest. There are two distinct types of Dragon-flies : in one the wings are extended horizontally when at rest (Fig. 97) ; in the other the wings are folded together above the abdomen when not in use (Fig. 98). This order includes only a single family. Family LlBELLULlD^: (Lib-el-lu'li-dae) The Dragon-flics. Darning-needles, Devil's-needles, Snake-doctors, Spindles, and Dragon-flies are some of the names given to those in- sects which dart back and forth over streams and wet places, ODONA TA. \ their rapidly moving wings throwing out gleams of metallic color as they go. Still more beautiful are they when at rest, their wings wide-spread or folded together above the ab- domen, and as rigid and motionless as if made of iridescent glass; and their great compound eyes shining like gold or precious stones. But for all their terrible names Dragon- flies are entirely innocent of any harm to mankind. They neither sew up people's ears, as northern chil- dren think ; nor bring dead snakes to life, as colored people in the South believe ; but they are very fierce enemies to their insect kindred. Their long, narrow, closely netted wings are strong, carrying them swiftly ; and their jaws are powerful, and their appetites good; so it is an unfortunate insect that falls in their way. FIG. TOO. The mother Dragon-fly lays her eggs in water or Tracheai fastens them to aquatic plants. The young as soon as hatched swim off and hunt for some smaller creatures to eat. They have strong legs and big jaws, and are real in- sect ogres. The lower lip when extended reaches far out, and is armed with powerful hooks with which to grab their prey ; but when fold- ed up it is so large that it is called a mask and gives the insect's face a comical re- semblance to that of a bull-dog. These nymphs have a peculiar method of breath- ing. The caudal end of the alimentary canal .is lined with tracheae. The insect alternately draws water into this cavity and expels it ; and thus the air in these tracheae is purified, this part of the alimen- tary canal acting as a tracheal gill. This process also helps the insect in swimming, for the water may be expelled with such force that the whole body is sent forward. In some species the nymphs have also two or three large FIG. 101. Exuviae of nymph of Dragon-fly. 92 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. plate-like gills on the end of the abdomen (Fig. 99). Figure 100 represents one of these gills enlarged. When the nymph get its growth it crawls out of the water and rests on some grass-blade or reed ; then the skin splits down the back and the Dragon-fly comes forth, while the old skin, perfect in form, still clings to its resting-place like a ghost until some inquiring wind blows it away (Fig. 101). CHAPTER VII. Order PLECOPTERA (Ple-cop'te-ra). The Stone-flics. The members of this order have four membranous wings, with comparatively feiv or with many cross-veins ; the hind wings are much larger than the fore zvings, and are folded in, plaits and lie upon the abdomen when at rest. The moiith- parts are of the biting type of structure, but are frequently poorly developed. The metamorphosis is incomplete. The name of this order is from two Greek words : plecos, plaited; and pteron, a wing. It refers to the way in which the hind wings are folded when at rest. Although the mouth-parts are of the biting type of struc- ture, the mandibles are often small, flat, and membranous, and evidently of little use. It is probable that as a rule the adults eat but little. The antennae are long, tapering, and many-jointed ; and in most species the caudal end of the abdomen is furnished with two many-jointed bristles. The nymphs are aquatic. This order includes only a single family. Family PERLID^S (Per'li-dse). The Stone-flics. Those boys fond of fishing know that a good place to find bait is under stones in streams. And doubtless they have often observed that in the swiftest portion of the stream the turned-over stones have clinging to the lower surface 93 94 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. flat creatures from one-half inch or less to one and one half inches in length. They cling so closely and are so nearly the color of the stone that they look almost like fossils. Their antennas and caudal bristles and three legs on each side extend out like the rays of a star ; the six soft clumps of white hair-like gills, one behind each leg, alone show that they are not engraved upon the stone (Fig. 102). These insects are the nymphs of the stone-flies, and are the favorite food of fishes, especially of brook trout. If a nymph is fortunate enough to escape the fate of being a luncheon for fish, when it is full-grown it crawls forth from the water and FIG. 102. Nymph of Stone- fly, Acroneiira. FIG. 103. Pteronareys regalis. transforms to a gray or greenish fly, with slender, closely veined fore wings and wide, delicate hind wings (Fig. 103). The cast nymph-skins are common objects on the banks of the streams which these insects inhabit. Several of the smaller species of the stone-flies appear in the winged state upon snow in early spring, and often find their way into houses. CHAPTER VIII. Order ISOPTERA (I-sop'te-ra). Tlie Termites or WJiite-ants. The members of this order are social insects. Each species consists of several distinct castes, of which only the " Kings " and the " Queens " are winged. These have four long, nar- row wings, wJiicJi are somewhat leathery in structure, and which are furnished with numerous but more or less indistinct "veins. The two pairs of wings are similar in form and struc- ture, and are laid flat upon the back when not in use. The mouth-parts are formed for biting. The metamorphosis is in- complete. The name of this order is from two Greek words : isos, equal ; and pteron, a wing. It refers to the fact that the two pairs of wings are similar in form and structure. The wings of the Termites (Ter'mites), although really broad when compared to the size of the body, appear narrow on account of their great length, being in many cases more than twice as long as the entire body. The order includes only a single family. Family TERMITID^E (Ter-mit'i-dae). The Termites or White-ants. These interesting insects are not Ants, nor at all related to them ; but they have been thus called because they have certain social habits that are similar to those of true Ants. They are more abundant in the tropics than here ; and 95 9 6 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. FIG. 104. Termcs worker. there build nests or mounds sometimes twelve feet high, or make roundish nests several feet thick on trees. Our Northern species (Termcs flavipcs) lives in old logs and stumps, or under stones in the ground. A remarkable thing about the White-ants is the way they are divided into classes, each class fitted to do a certain work for the colony. First, there is the class of zew&r.y (Fig. 104), which is constituted of both sexes : they are wingless, and of a dirty-white color, and while they resemble true ants somewhat, their waists are thicker. Their business is to bring food for everybody, feed and bring up the young termites, and build nests. FIG. lo^. Termes ftavij>es, soldier. SeCOIld, thei'C is the claSS called soldiers (Fig. 105) : these too are of both sexes and wingless, and look somewhat like the workers, only their heads are tremendous in size, being often nearly as long as the rest of the body, and their jaws are large and powerful. Third, is the royal class called kings and queens. It would have been better to have called them fathers and mothers, as they are the parents of the colony, and do not rule it. This class when grown have wings which lie flat upon the back when at rest, and may be twice as long as the body. In May or June in our common species this class swarms forth from all the nests of the neighborhood. After a flight of some distance the wings are shed, and a king chooses some queen near him and proposes that they start a king- dom of their own. But like mortal kings and queens they cannot reign unless a kingdom is found for them, and so millions of these royal pairs die because they have no sub- jects. But sometimes a fortunate couple is discovered by some termite workers, who at once take possession of the I SOFT ERA. 97 wanderers and provide them with food, and with shelter in the shape of a large circular shallow cell. In this they are really imprisoned, but are well cared for. Soon the queen or mother begins to develop eggs, and her body grows enormously. Finally, it is nothing but a huge sac filled with eggs, looking more like a potato than anything else, and is sometimes six or seven inches long (Fig. 106). Of course the poor queen cannot move herself in the least, and if she were not fed would soon starve; but her king remains devoted to her, and her ladies and gentlemen in waiting do their best to make her comfortable : they carry away the eggs to other chambers as soon as they are laid, then care for the eggs, and feed the little ones when they are hatched. The young termites are active, and re- semble the adult in form. If a nest becomes queenless, and the workers are unable to procure a queen, there are de- veloped in the nest wingless sexual individuals, which are termed complemental males and females. But as each com- plemental female lays only a few eggs, it requires several to take the place of a real queen. All White-ants are miners, and avoid the light. They build covered-ways wherever they wish to go. In hot countries they are a terrible pest, as they feed upon wood, and actually destroy buildings and furniture and libraries. They leave merely the outside portion of what they feed upon ; and they have been known to enter a table through the bottom of the legs and to eat all the inner portions so that a slight weight crushed it to the floor. In Florida they do damage to orange and other trees by girdling them below the surface of the ground. FIG. 106. Queen white- ant, Tertiies gili'us. CHAPTER IX. Order CORRODENTIA (Cor-ro-den'ti-a). The Psocids (Psocids) and tlie Book-lice. The winged members of this order have four membranous icings, with the veins prominent, but with comparatively few cross veins; the fore wings are larger than the hind wings; and both pairs when not in use are placed roof-like over the body, being almost vertical, and not folded in plaits. The mouth-parts are formed for biting. The metamorphosis is in- complete. The name of this order is from the Latin corrodere, to gnaw, and refers to the gnawing habits of these insects. The wings, especially the fore wings, are often smoky in color or FlG - I0 ? variegated. The arrangement of the veins of the wings (Fig. 107) differs in a striking manner from that of any other biting insect. The order includes two families, but representatives of only one of them occur in the United States. Family PsociD^E (Psoc'i-dae). The Psocids (Pso'cids) and the Book-lice. Books may be old and out of date from our standpoint, but still be of vital importance to others. Take down from the shelf a time-yellowed book and open its neglected leaves qS CORR ODEN TIA . 99 and watch the pale tiny creatures that scurry across its pages; examine one of them with a lens, look well at his alert, knowing, black eyes, and we are sure you will believe that he is in search of real literature, and not merely a feeder upon paper, as we are taught. Anyway, scientists have con- cluded that these insects look wise enough to bear the name Atropos divinatoria (At'ro-pos di-vin-a-to'ri-a), or the Divining Atropos (Fig. 108). They are, however, more commonly called simply book-lice. Some members of the family Psocidae do not live in books, but feed upon lichens that are found on the trunks of trees and on fences, F IG Io8 often a great number being grouped together. Many of these have wings, and look like plant-lice (Fig. 107). The eggs are laid in heaps on leaves and branches, and are covered with a tissue of threads ; for the Psocids have the power of spinning silk similar to that spun by spiders. CHAPTER X. Order MALLOPHAGA (Mal-loph'a-ga). TJic Bird-lice. TJic members of tJiis order are wingless parasitic insects, biting mouth-parts. Their metamorphosis is incomplete. The name of the order is from two Greek words : mallos, wool ; and pJiagdn, to eat. Although some species infest sheep and goats, feeding upon their wool, by far the greater number live among the feathers of birds. It is due to this fact that the common name Bird-lice is applied to the entire group. The order includes several families; but we will not take the space to define them. The Bird-lice are well known to most people that have pet birds or who keep poultry. They differ from the true Lice in having biting mouth-parts, and in feeding upon either feathers, hair, or the skin ; while the true Lice have sucking mouth-parts and feed upon blood. It is to free themselves from these pests that hens wallow in the dust. When poultry are kept in closed houses they should be provided with a " dust-bath." All poultry-houses should be cleaned at least twice a year, and the old straw burned. Sprinkling powdered sulphur in the nests and oiling the perches with kerosene will tend to keep the pests in check. If a poultry-house becomes badly infested, it should be cleaned thoroughly, and every part whitewashed ; and the poultry should be dusted with Buhach or Persian insect powder (Pyrethrum). IOO MALLOPHAGA 101 Fig. 109 represents Goniodes sty lifer (Gon-i-o'des styl'i- fer), a species which infests the turkey; and Fig. no, FIG. 109. Goniodes stylifer. FIG. no. Trichodectes scalaris. (From Law.) (From Law.) Trichbdectes scalaris (Trich-o-dec'tes sca-la'ris), a species infesting the ox. CHAPTER XI. * Order EuPLEXOPTERA (Eu-plex-op'te-ra). TJic Earwigs. T/ie members of this order have apparently four wings ; the first pair of is/tie h are leathery, very small, without veins, and when at rest meet in a straight line on the back ; the second pair are large, witJi radiating reins, and wJicn at rest are folded both lengthwise and crosswise. The mouth-parts are formed for biting. The caudal end of the body is furnished with a pair of appendages which resemble forceps. The meta- morphosis is incomplete. The name of the order is from three Greek words : en, well ; pleko, to fold ; and pteron, wing. The word is not well formed, but it cannot now be changed. It refers to the unusual folding of the hind wings. This order is termed the Dermaptera by many entomologists, but this name was first applied to certain other insects, and so should not be used for these. The so-called fore wings of these insects resemble the wing-covers of beetles, and probably like them are not true wings. The hind wings are very different from those of any other insects. Figure 1 1 1 represents one of these ; they are furnished with radi- ating veins, which extends from a point some distance from the base of the wings. When the wing is not in use that part over which these FIG. in. Wmg of Earwig. veins extend is folded in plaits like a fan, after which the wing is folded twice crosswise. Al- IO2 EUPLEXOPTERA. 1 03 though these insects bear some resemblance to beetles, they differ from them markedly in having an incomplete meta- morphosis. The order includes only a single family. Family FORFICULID^: (For-fi-cu'li-dae). 7 '/it" Earwigs. These are long and narrow insects, resembling rove- beetles in the form of the body and in the shortness of the wing - covers, but easily distinguished by having a pair of forceps at the end of the body (Fig. 112). The common name, earwig has reference to a widely spread fancy that these insects creep into the ears of sleeping persons. The earwigs are rare in the North- eastern United States, but are more often found in the South and on the Pacific coast. In Europe they are com- mon, and are often troublesome pests, feeding upon the corollas of flowers, , . . FIG. 112. An Earwig. fruits, and other vegetable substances. CHAPTER XII. Order ORTHOPTEKA (Or-thop' tc-ra}. Cockroaches, Crickets, Grasshoppers, and of hers. The members of this order have four wings : the first pair are tliickened, and overlap when at rest ; the second pair are tin 'nner, and are folded in plaits like a fan. The month-parts are formed for biting. The metamorphosis is incomplete. The order Orthoptera includes some of the very common and best-known insects. The most familiar representatives are those named above. Although the song of the Katydid and the chirp of crickets are most often associated with recollections of pleas- ant evenings spent in the country, we cannot forget that to members of this order are due some of the most terrible insect scourges man has known. The devastations caused by great swarms of migratory locusts are not only matters of historical record, but are too painfully known to many of our own generation in the Western States. With the exception of a single family (Mantidcz), the members of this order are, as a rule, injurious to vegetation ; and many species are quite apt to multiply to such an extent that their destruction of vegetation becomes serious. The name of the order is from two Greek words: orthos, straight; and//m?;/, a wing. It refers to the longitudinal folding of the hind wings. In the Orthoptera the two pairs of wings differ in struc- ture. The fore wings are parchment-like, forming covers for the more delicate hind wings. These wing-covers have re- 104 ORTHOPTERA. 1 05 ceived the special name tegmina (teg'mi-na); they are furnished with a fine network of veins, and overlap at the tip at least. There are many species in which the wings are rudimentary, even in the adult state. Such adults resemble nymphs; but in the case of the jumping Orthoptera, where this peculiar- ity most often occurs, nymphs can be distinguished by the fact that the rudimentary hind wings are outside of the fore wings, instead of beneath them, as in the adult state. This order includes only six families. We are able, there- fore, to discuss all of them in this work. The following synopsis will aid the student in fixing in his mind the more important characteristics of each family. SYNOPSIS OF THE FAMILIES OF THE ORTHOPTERA, THE RUNNING ORTHOPTERA. The body is oval when seen from above, and is very flat; the three pairs of legs are similar in form ; the insects run rapidly, p. 106 BLATTID/E. THE GRASPING ORTHOPTERA. The prothorax is very long and slender ; the first pair of legs are very different from the others, and are fitted for grasping, p. 106 . . . MANTID^. THE WALKING ORTHOPTERA. The body is very long and slender; the three pairs of legs are similar in form, and are also very long and slender ; the insects walk slowly, p. 108 PHASMID^E. THE JUMPING ORTHOPTERA. The hind legs are very much stouter or very much longer, or both stouter and longer, than the middle pair, being fitted for jumping. This group includes three families : The Short-horned Grasshoppers, or Locusts. The antennae are shorter than the body. The ovipositor of the female is short and composed of four separate plates. The tarsi are three-jointed. p. 108 ACRIDID.'E. The Long-horned Grasshoppers. The antennae are very slender and longer than the body. (This is also true of the crickets.) The ovipositor is sword-shaped. The tarsi are four-jointed, p. 112 LOCUSTID^E. The Crickets. The antennae, like those of the long-horned grass- hoppers, are very slender and longer than the body, except in the mole-crickets. The ovipositor is spear-shaped when exerted. The tarsi are three-jointed, p. 115 GRYLLIM;. io6 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. Family BLATTID^E (Blat'ti-dae). The Cockroaches. After every one is in bed at night and all is quiet in the kitchen where there are water-pipes, often a throng of little creatures come forth from hiding-places and, like brownies, take possession of everything. They race around every where, trying to find something to eat ; they do not care much whether it is raw or cooked, but will devour almost anything that comes in reach of their greedy jaws. They eat book-bindings and bedbugs, if they find them, with equal alacrity ; and sometimes they get bold enough to appear in broad daylight. The little, pale brown rascal called the Croton-bug, which came to us from Europe and infests the vicinity of the pipes of the water systems of many of our cities, is es- pecially bold and impu- dent (Fig. 113). In fact, in the North our native cockroaches are mostly FIG. 113. The Croton-bug. Fin. 114. A Wing- less Cockroach. FIG. 115. Ootheca of a Cock- roach. respectable, well-behaved insects, living in fields and forests under sticks and stones, the emigrant cockroaches being the offenders. Many cockroaches are wingless (Fig. 114). The eggs of a cockroach are laid, all at once, enclosed in a sort of pod which is more or less bean-shaped (Fig. 115). Thorough and frequent dusting with insect-powder in the cracks about the kitchen will rid a house of these pests. Family MANTID^E (Man'ti-dae). The Praying Mantes, or Mule-killers. Certainly they are pious-looking fellows, with their front legs clasped together in front of their meek, alert faces, and ORTHOPTERA. 107 it is no wonder that they are called Praying Mantes. But the only prayer that could ever enter the mind of a Mantis FIG. 116. Phasmotnantis Carolina. would be that some unwary insect might come near enough for him to grab it with his hypo- critical claws, and so get a meal. Devil-horses rear-horses, and camel-crickets are other names applied to these insects, because of the long, slender prothorax which makes them look like tiny giraffes. They are also called mule-killers* from the absurd superstition that the dark-col- ored saliva they eject from their mouths is fatal to the mule. But they are absolutely harmless to both man and beast. They are mostly tropical insects, and often have wings that resemble the leaves of trees. Our common species, Phasmo- mantis Carolina (Phas-mo-man'tis) (Fig. 116), is confined to the Southern States. The eggs are FIG. "7. Egg-mass or laid in masses and overlaid with a hard covering a Mantis - of silk; the top of the masses having the appearance of be- ing braided (Fig. 117). io8 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. Family PHASMID^; (Phas'mi-dae). The U r al/cing--stic/cs. The rambler in forests is often surprised to discover that a part of the casually-plucked branch in his hand is alive. A certain twig that was stiff and motionless sud- denly, when disturbed, walks off on long slender legs, as awkwardly as if it had never tried to walk before. Strange and uncanny creatures are these walking-sticks / with their long pointed bodies and with legs colored and looking exactly like twigs and leaf-peti- oles. In the tropics their resem- blance to foliage is made more perfect by wings which are veined like leaves. In the Northern States we have only one common species, Diapheromera femorata, (Di-aph-e- rom'e-ra fem-o-ra'ta), and that is wingless (Fig. 118). Walking- sticks feed upon foliage. Their eggs, which are large, are dropped on the ground under the trees by FIG. us. A Walking-stick. the mother, who trusts entirely to fate to preserve them. Family ACRIDID^E (A-crid'i-dse). Locusts, or Short-horned Grasshoppers. Every country lad is familiar with the appearance of grasshoppers. But there are many kinds of these insects, representing at least two distinct families. The family Acrididae, or Locusts, includes those grasshoppers in which OR rffOP TERA . 1 09 the antennae, are shorter than the body, and in which the ovipositor of the female is short and made up of four sepa- rate plates (Fig. 119). The tarsi are three-jointed; and on FIG. 119. Side view of Locust with wings removed each side of the first segment of the abdomen there is a cir- cular plate which is believed to be an ear. It is to these insects that the term locust is properly ap- plied. For the locusts of which we read in the Bible, and in other books published in the older countries, are members of this family. Unfortunately in the United States the term locust has been applied to the Periodical Cicada, a member of the order Hemiptera, described later. And, what is more unfortunate, the scientific name Locustidae was given long ago to the next family and cannot now be changed. It should be remembered, therefore, that the locusts do not belong to the Locustidae. Locusts lay their eggs in oval masses and cover them with a tough substance. Some species lay their eggs in the ground. The female makes a hole in the ground with her ovipositor, which is a good digging-tool. Some species even make holes in fence-rails, logs, and stumps ; then, after the eggs are laid, the hole is covered up with a plug of gummy materials. There is but one generation a year, and in most cases the winter is passed in the egg-state. This family is of great economic importance, as the members of it usually appear in great numbers in every region where plants grow, and often do much damage. The males of many locusts are able to produce sounds. This is done in two ways: First, -certain species rub the inner surface of the hind femora, upon which there is a row of minute spines, against the outer surface of the wing-covers. HO THE STUDY OF INSECTS. In this case each wing-cover serves as a fiddle, and each hind- leg as a fiddle-bow. Second, other species rub together the upper surface of the front edge of the hind-wings and the under surface of the wing-covers. This is done while the locust is flying, and the result is a crackling sound. There are very many species of locusts in the United States. We have space to refer to only a few here. The most familiar member of the family is the Red- legged Locust, Melanoplus femur-rubrum (Me-lan'o-plus) (Fig. 120). It is more abun. dant than any other species throughout the United States, except in the high dry lands of the central part of the FlG - I2 continent. Here the Rocky Mountain Locust, Mclaiioplns sprctus, abounds. This spe- cies closely resembles the red-legged locust, except that it has longer wings. It is this insect that sometimes migrates into the lower and more fertile regions of the Mississippi Valley and does such great damage. It will be remembered that at one time it almost produced a famine in Kansas and the neighboring States. Fortunately the young of this insect hatched in the low regions are not healthy, and die before reaching maturity. Consequently the plagues caused by the emigration of this insect are of short duration. There are several other species of Melanoplus common in this country, but they can be distinguished only by very careful study. The Clouded Locust, Encoptolophus sordidus (En-cop-tol'- o-phus sor'di-dus) (Fig. 121), is very common in the Eastern United States during the autumn. It abounds in meadows and pastures, and attracts attention by the crackling sound made by the males during flight. Its FlG - -E<--ptoiophus sordid. color is dirty brown, mottled with darker spots. ORTHOPTERA. Ill The Carolina Locust, Dissosteira Carolina (Dis-sos-tei'ra), is common throughout the United States and Canada, and at the North is our largest species. It lives in roads and on bare places, and its color matches the soil on which it lives. It is usually pale yellowish or reddish-brown or slate color, with small dusky spots. The hind wings are black, with a broad yellow edge. It measures from one inch and a half to nearly two inches in length. The Sprinkled Locust, CJirysochraon conspersuin (Chry- soch'ra-on con-sper'sum) (Fig. 122), is a common species. Here the wings are a little shorter than the abdomen in the males, and much shorter in the females. In the South and in the FlG West we find several genera in which the body is very long and slender. Leptys ma via rgin i colic (Lep-tys'ma mar-gin-i- col'le) (Fig. 123), will serve as an illustration of the form of these insects. There is a group of small locusts of which Tcttix (Fig. 124) is an example, which is remarkable for the shape of the proriotum. This projects backward like a little roof over the wings, and often extends beyond the end of the abdomen/ With these insects the wing-covers are in FlG - I2 -*-- Tetti *- the shape of small rough scales, the wings being protected by the large pronotum. These insects are commonly found in low, wet places, and on the borders of streams. Their colors are usually dark, and are often protective, closely resembling that of the soil upon which they occur. These locusts are very active, jumping great distances. FIG. 123. Leptysma marginicolle. I 12 THE STUDY OF INSECTS, Family LOCUSTID^E (Lo-cus'ti-dae). The Long-horned Grasshoppers. Any one that is in the habit of lying in the tall grass of meadows or pastures and watching the insects that can be seen there is sure to be familiar with certain green grass- hoppers, which attract attention by the extreme delicacy and great length of their antennae. These are our most common members of the Locustidae. The antennae are much more slender than with the short-horned grasshoppers or locusts, and much longer, exceeding the body in length. The tarsi are four-jointed. The ear-like FIG. 125. Leg erf organs, when present, are situated near the e K arSorgl h n OWing base of the fore tibise (Fig. 125), and the ovipositor is sword-shaped. In those species of this family in which the wings are well developed we find the males provided with an elabo- FIG. 126. Wing-cover of Male Meadow Grasshopper. FIG. 127. Wing-cover of Female Meadow Grasshopper. rate musical apparatus by means of which they call their mates. This consists of a peculiar arrangement of the veins and cells of a portion of each wing-cover near its base. This arrangement differs in the different species ; but in each it is ORTHOPTERA. 113 such that by rubbing the wing-covers together they are made to vibrate, and thus produce the sound. Figure 126 repre- sents a wing-cover of the male of a common meadow grass- hopper, and Figure 127 that of a female of the same species. In order to facilitate the study of this family the more common representatives can be arranged in four groups : The Meadow Grasshoppers, the Katydids, the Cricket-like Grasshoppers, and the Shield-backed Grasshoppers. I. The Meadoiu Grasshoppers. Under this head can be classed our most common members of the family; they abound upon grass in meadows and in moist places. Figure 1 28 represents one FlG " *--****''**'" of these insects. II. The Katydids. The chances are that he who lies awake of a midsummer night must listen whether he wishes to do so or not, to an oft-repeated, rasping song that says, " Katy did, Katy did ; she did, she didn't," over and over again. There is no use of wondering what Katy did or didn't do, for no mortal will ever know. If, when the dawn comes, the listener has eyes sharp enough to discern one of these singers among the leaves of some neighboring tree, never a note of explanation will he get. The beautiful, finely- veined wings folded close over the body keep the secret hid- den, and the long antennae, looking like threads of living silk, will wave airily above the droll, green eyes as much as to say, " Wouldn't you like to know?" The katydids live only on trees, and sing only during the night. There are several species of katydids common in the United States. The Western and Southern species, called the Angular-winged Katydid, Microcentrum retinervis (Mic-ro-cen'trum ret-i'ner- vis) lays its eggs in neat rows upon leaves and branches ; the eggs are oval, and each overlaps its neighbor slightly 114 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. (Fig. 129). In many sections where the katydids do not occur, the song of the Snowy Tree-cricket, described later, is often mistaken for that of a Katydid. FIG. 129. The Angular-winged Katydid and its eggs. III. The Circkct-likc Grass/toppers. These are wingless, and resemble crickets in form. The most common members of this group belong to the genus ^..^^ Ceuthophilus (Ceu-thoph'i-lus) (Fig. 130). These insects are found under stones and rub- bish, especially in woods. FIG. 130. Ceuthophilus. Very closely allied to them are the colorless and blind Cave-crickets, Hadcnceais (Had-e- nce'cus), found in caves. ORTHGPTERA. IV. The Shield-backed Grasshoppers. These are also wingless, and dull-colored insects, which bear some resem- blance to crickets. They present, however, a queer appearance, due to the pronotum extend- ing backward over the rest of the thorax, like a sun-bonnet worn over the shoulders with the back side forward. This group is repre- sented in the Eastern half of the United States by TJiyreo- notns (Thyr-e-o-no'tus) (Fig. 131). In the regions west of the Mississippi River occur the " Western Crickets," belonging to the genus Anabrus (An'a-brus), and on the Pacific coast FlG - FIG. 132. Stenopelmatus. there are large, clumsy creatures with big heads, that live under stones and in loose soil, and are popularly known as Sand-crickets. These belong to the genus Stenopelmatus (Sten-o-pel-ma'tus) (Fig. 132). Family GRYLLID.E (Gryl'li-dae). The Crickets. The crickets differ from both families of grasshoppers in having the wing-covers flat above and bent sharply down at the edge of the body like a box-cover, instead of meeting in a ridge above the body like a roof. The antennae are long HO THE STUDY OF INSECTS. and slender, like those of the Locustidae ; but the form of the ovipositor is quite different in this family, being spear- shaped, instead of sword-like. The males of the crickets have musical organs which are even more elaborate than those of the Katydids and meadow grasshoppers. Here all that part of each wing-cover that lies on the back is occupied by them. This gives the males a very different appearance from the females, the wing- covers of that sex being veined simply. During the latter part of summer and in the autumn the air is filled with the chirping of crickets. It is an interest- ing thing to watch one of these fiddlers calling his mate. By moving quietly in the direction from which the sound comes, and stopping whenever the insect stops chirping, but moving on again when he renews his song, one can get near enough to see how he does it. This can be done even in the night with the aid of a lantern, as the crickets do not seem to mind lights. Figure 133 represents the musical apparatus of a cricket. FIG. 133. Tegmina of male Grylhis. From this it will be seen that the large veins divide the wing- covers into disk-like membranous spaces. If the principal vein which extends diagonally across the base of the wing- ORTHOPTEKA. 117 cover be examined with a microscope, it will be seen to be furnished with ridges like those of a file (Fig. 133, /;). On the inner margin of the wing-cover, a short distance toward the base from the end of the principal vein, there is a hardened portion which may be called the scraper. This is shown enlarged at c in the figure. Each wing-cover is there- fore provided with a file and a scraper. When the cricket wishes to make his call, he elevates his wing-covers at an angle of about forty-five degrees with the body ; then hold- ing them in such a position that the scraper of one rests upon the file of the other, he moves the wing-covers back and forth sidewise so that the file and the scraper rasp upon each other. This throws the wing-covers into vibration, and produces the call. There are comparatively few species of crickets, but they represent three quite distinct groups. These can be dis- tinguished as the Mole Crickets, the True Crickets, and the Tree Crickets. I. The Mole Crickets. - These are called Mole Crickets because they burrow in the ground like moles. There are species belonging to the next group, the true crickets, which burrow in the ground ; but the mole-crickets are pre-eminently b tn-rowers. The form of the body is suited to this mode of life. The front tibiae, especially, are fitted for digging; they are greatly broadened, and shaped somewhat like hands, or the feet of a mole. Figure 134 represents one of these insects. The mole-crickets feed upon the tender roots of various plants, and where they are common they are FIG. 134 Gryllotalpa SeriOUS peStS. borealls. II. The True Crickets. To this group belong our com- mon, black acquaintances that peep at us from the cracks. iiS THE STUDY OF INSECTS. in the paving, or jump across our paths when we walk in the fields. They are com- mon everywhere ; some spe- cies even live in our houses. They usually feed upon plants, but are sometimes predaceous. The eggs are laid in the au- FIG. 135. Gryllus abbreviates. tumn, usually in the ground, and are hatched in the follow- ing summer. The greater number of the old crickets die on the approach of winter; a few, however, survive the cold season. Figure 135 represents the female of a species com- mon in the East. In this species the wings are shorter than usual. III. The Tree Crickets. The common name of this group was suggested by the fact that these crickets are very apt to inhabit trees ; but they occur also on shrubs, or even on high herbs and tall grass. The most abundant species in the East is the Snowy Tree- cricket, CEcantJnts nivcns (CE-can'thus niv'e- us). This is a delicate, whitish-green insect, that lives upon shrubs or plants. The female often does serious damage by laying her eggs in raspberry canes, causing them to die above the puncture. Canes thus in- jured should be cut and burned in the early spring before the eggs are hatched. Figure 136 shows the male, his closely folded wings showing beneath his delicate transparent wing-covers. The female has her wing- covers wrapped closely around her body, making her look- much narrower than the male. s FIG. 136. (Ecanthus , male. CHAPTER XIII. Order PHYSOPODA (Phy-sop'o-da). Thrips. The members of this order have four wings ; these are similar in form, long, narrow, membranous, not folded, witli but few or no veins, and only rarely with cross veins ; they are fringed zvith long hairs, and are laid horizontally along the back when at rest. The metamorphosis is incomplete. The mouth-parts are probably used chiefly for sucking; they are intermediate in form between those of the sucking and those of the biting insects (Fig. 138); the mandibles are bristle-like; the maxillce are triangular, flat, and furnished zc/z//; palpi; and the labial palpi are also present. The tarsi are two- jointed, bladder-like at tip, and without claws. Pull to pieces a clover-blossom or a daisy, and you will probably find at the base of the florets many wee, black, red, or yellowish insects. These are so small that it would take a dozen or more placed end to end to measure an inch ; and when disturbed they are apt to thrust the end of their bodies up in the air as if they meant to sting, looking as ferocious as such small insects can look. They are extremely lively, leaping or taking flight with great agility. Under a microscope their four narrow wings, delicately fringed all around with long hairs, may be seen ; these wings are laid flat down the back when at rest. The red ones are wingless, and are the young of the black species. Some species eat other insects, but most of them live upon vegetation. There is one species, Limothrips poaphagus (Lim'othrips po-aph'a- iig I2O THE STUDY OF INSECTS. gus) that damages timothy and June-grass very much by working in the upper joints. In the early summer the dead .and yellow heads of grasses thus destroyed may be seen .everywhere in grass-growing regions. Some species live under the bark of trees. The accompanying figure repre- sents one of these insects very greatly enlarged (Fig. 137). FIG. 137. Thrtf'S. FIG. 138. Mouth-parts of Thrips. (Drawn by .1. M. Stedman, under the author's direction.) 8, labrum; 10, mandible; n, maxilla; 12, labium. The insect infesting grapes, called "The Tlirips," is not a Thrips at all, but a leaf-hopper belonging to the Homoptera. The name Physopoda is from two Greek words : pJiysao, to blow up, and poiis. a foot. It refers to the curious bladder-like feet of these insects. Figure 138 represents the mouth-parts of Thrips. CHAPTER XIV. Order HEMIPTERA (He-mip'te-ra). Bugs, Lice, Aphids, and others. The winged members of this order have four wings ; in one sub-order the first pair of wings are thickened at the base, with thinner extremities which overlap on the back ; in another sub-order the first pair of wings are of the same thickness throughout, and usually slope at the sides of the body. The mouth-parts are formed for sucking. The metamorphosis is incomplete. The order Hemiptera includes many well-known pests: here belong the true bugs, the lice, the aphids, the scale insects, and many other forms injurious to plants. On the other hand, some of the species are ranked among beneficial insects on account of their predaceous habits ; while still others, as the cochineal and lac insects, furnish us with useful products. The name Hemiptera is from two Greek words : Jicini, half; and pteron, a wing. It was suggested by the form of the first pair of wings in the true bugs. Here the basal half of these organs is thickened somewhat like the wing-covers of beetles, only the terminal half being wing-like. The second pair of wings are membranous, and when at rest are folded beneath the first pair. The mouth-parts are formed for piercing and sucking. Without dissection, they usually appear as a slender jointed beak, arising at the base of a shorter, pointed upper lip. This beak consists of four bristles, enclosed in a flesh}-, 121 122 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. jointed sheath (Fig. 139). Two of the bristles represent the mandibles, and two the maxillse. The sheath is supposed to consist of the labium and the grown-together labial palpi. In their transformation the Hemiptera pass through an incomplete metamorphosis ; the young nymphs resembling FIG. 13 9. Mouth-parts of Bug-. (Af- ter Muhr.) FIG. 140, a. Head of an heter- opterous insect. FIG. 140, f>. Head of an homopterous insect. the adults more or less closely in form, and the wings being gradually developed at successive molts. This order includes three well-marked groups, which are ranked as suborders. The first of these, the Hctcroptera, includes the true bugs. They are placed first, as we believe they resemble the ancient Hemiptera the first to appear on the earth more closely than the members of either of the other suborders. The second suborder, the Parasitica, in- cludes the lice. These insects are much lower in structure than the Heteroptera ; but we believe that this simplicity in structure is a result of degradation due to parasitic habits, and therefore really represents a later development than that shown by the Heteroptera. In other words, the lice are probably descendants of some ancient form resembling some of the existing Heteroptera. Among the Heteroptera the bedbug exhibits a similar downward tendency. The third suborder, the Homoptera, includes some forms that HEMIP TERA . 123 are perhaps as primitive as any of the existing Heteroptera; but, on the other hand, we find here forms that represent the widest divergence from the hemipterous type known to us. These three suborders can be separated by the following table : A. Wingless Hemiptera, parasitic upon man and other Mammals, with a fleshy, unjointed beak p. 147 II. PARASITICA. AA. Hemiptera with or without wings, but with a jointed beak. B. First pair of wings thickened at the base, with thinner extremi- ties, which overlap on the back; beak arising from the front part of the head (Fig. 140, a), p. 123. . . ..I. HETEROPTERA. BB. Wings of the same thickness throughout, and usually sloping at the sides of the body ; beak arising from the hinder part of the lower side of the head (Fig. 140, b) p. 148. III. HOMOPTERA. Suborder HETEROPTERA (Het-e-rop'te-ra). The True Bugs. People that know but little regarding entomology are apt to apply the term bug to any kind of insect ; but, strictly speaking, only the Hemiptera are bugs, and many restrict the term to members of this suborder. We therefore des- ignate the Heteroptera as the True Bugs. The bugs are very common insects. They abound on grass and on the foliage of other plants. Certain foul-smell- ing members of this group are well-known pests in gardens, and upon berries in fields. In this suborder the first pair of wings are thickened at the base, while the tips, which overlap each other on the back of the insect, are thin and transparent ; and the beak arises from the front part of the head (Fig. 140, a}. Some of the Heteroptera live in water, others on land, while still others live on the surface of the water or in marshy places. Each of these modes of life are characteristic of certain fami- lies. The name Heteroptera is from the Greek heteros, di- verse, and pteron, a wing. The following synopsis will aid 124 THE STUDY OF IX SECTS. the student in learning the characters of the families of this suborder : SYNOPSIS OF THE HETEROPTERA. THE SHORT-HORNED BUGS. Bugs with short antennae, which are nearly or quite concealed beneath the head. Bugs that live within water. The Water-boatmen, Family CORISID^E. (p. 129 ) The Back-swimmers, Family NOTONECTID.*;. (p. 130.) The Water scorpions, Family NEPID.E. (p. 130.) The Giant Water-bugs, Family BELOSTOMID.E. (p. 131.) The Creeping Water-bugs, Family NAUCORID.E. (p. 133.) lilies that live near water. The Toad-shaped Bugs, Family GALGULID.^E. (p. 133.) 'THE LONG-HORNED BUGS. Bugs with antennae at least as long as the head, and prominent except in the Phymatida, where they are concealed under the sides of the prothorax. The Semi-aquatic Bugs. The Shore-bugs, Family SALDID.<. (p. 134.) The Broad-shouldered Water-striders, Family VELUM:, (p. 134.) The Water-striders, Family HYDROS ATID.E. (p. 135.) The Marsh-treaders, Family LIMNOBATID/E. (p. 136.) The Land-bugs. The Land-bugs with four-jointed antenna'. The Thread-legged Bugs, Family EMESID/E. (p. 136.) The Assassin-bugs, Family REDUVIIDJE. (p. 137.) The Damsel-bugs, Family NABIIXE. (p. 138.) The Ambush-bugs, Family PHYMATID/E. (p. 138.) The Flat-bugs, Family ARADID.E. (p. 139.) The Lace-bugs, Family TINGITID/E. Cp. 139-) The Bed-bug and the Flower-bugs, Family ACANTHIID.^. (p. 140). The Leaf-bugs, Family CAPSID/E. (p. 140.) The Red-bug Family, Family PYRRHOCORID.^. (p. 141.) The Chinch-bug Family, Family LYG.EID.E. (p. 142.) The Stilt-bugs, Family BERYTID.E. (p. 143.) The Squash-bug Family, Family COREID/E. (p. 143.) The Land-bugs with five-jointed antenncE. The Stink-bug Family, Family PENTATOMIIX. (p. 144.1 The Burrower-bugs, Family CYDNID/E. (p. 145). The Negro-bugs, Family CORIMEL;ENID/E. (p. 146.) The Shield-backed bugs, Family SCUTELLERID.E. (p. 146 ) HEMIPTERA, 125 Classification of the Heteroptera. (For advanced stzidents.} In order to use the following table for determining the families of bugs, the student should become familiar with the names applied to different parts of the fore-wings of these insects. The thickened basal portion is composed of two pieces joined together at their sides ; one of these is narrow and is the part next to the scutellum when the wings are closed (Fig. 141, d)\ this is distinguished as the davits (cla'vus). The other broader part is the corium (co'ri-um) FIG. 141 Diagram of (Fig. \\\,co). The terminal portion of the wing- wing-cover of a cover is designated as the membrane (Fig. 141, m.) In certain families a triangular portion of the terminal part of the corium is separated as a distinct piece; this is the cuneus (cu'ne-us) (Fig. 141, cii). In certain other cases, a narrow piece on the costal) margin of the corium is separated by a suture ; this is the embolium (em-bo'li-um) (Fig. 141, e). FIG. 142. Nabidce. FIG. 143. A ca nth iidie. FIG. 144. Capsidce. FIG. 145. Pyrrhocoridiz. FIG. 146. Lygceidcz. FIG. 147. Coreidtz. TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE FAMILIES OF THE IIETEROPTERA. A. Antennae shorter than the head, and nearly or quite concealed in a cavity beneath the eyes. B. Hind-tarsi without claws. C. Fore-tarsi flattened with a fringe of hairs on the edge, and without claws ; head overlapping the prothorax. p. 129. CC. Fore-tarsi of the usual form, and with two claws; head in- serted in the prothorax. p. 130 .............. NOTONECTID/E. 126 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. BB. Hind~tarsi with two claws. C. Caudal end of the abdomen furnished with a respiratory tube composed of a pair of grooved, thread-like organs, p. 130. CC. Caudal end of abdomen without respiratory tube. D. Legs flattened, fitted for swimming ; caudal end of the ab- domen furnished with a pair of strap-like appendages (these appendages are retractile and are frequently withdrawn from sight), p. 131 ............................. BELOSTOMID/E. DD. Legs fitted for walking; abdomen without strap-like caudal appendages. E. Without ocelli, p. 133 .................. NAUCORID.E. EE. Ocelli present, p. 133... ...... . ...... GALGULID^E. AA. Antennae at least as long as the head, usually free, rarely (Phy- ntatidce} fitting in a groove under the lateral margin of the pro- notum. B. Body linear; head as long as the three thoracic segments. p. I 36 ......................................... LlMNOBATID/E. BB. Body of various forms, but, when linear, with the head shorter than the thorax. C. Last segment of the tarsi more or less split, and with the claws inserted before the apex. D. Body usually elongated; prothorax narrow; beak four- jointed ; second and third pairs of legs extremely long and slender. p. 1 35 .......................... H YDROBATID.E. DD. Body usually stout, oval, and broadest across the protho- rax; beak three-jointed; legs not extremely long. p. 134. CC. Last segment of the tarsi entire, and with the claws inserted at the apex. D. Antennae four-jointed.* E. Wing-covers resembling network, and very rarely (Piesma with any distinction between the corium and the mem- brane. p. 139 ............................ TINGITID/E. EE. Wing-covers of various forms or absent, but not of the form presented by the Tingitidae. See Fig. 165. F. Beak three-jointed. * In certain families there are minute intermediate segments between the principal segments of the antennae. For the purposes of this table these intermediate segments are not counted. HEM IP TERA. 127 G. Wing-covers when well developed with a cuneus (Fig. 143); those forms in which the adult has rudimentary wing-covers have no ocelli, p. 140. . . . ACANTHUDjE. GG. Wing-covers when well developed without a cuneus ; those forms in which the adult has rudimentary wing- covers have ocelli. H. Ocelli wanting. I. Body linear. p. 136 EMESID/E. II. Body greatly flattened, p. 139 ARADID/E. III. Body of ordinary form. p. 137. REDUVIID/E. HH. Ocelli present, though sometimes difficult to see. I. Beak very long, reaching to or beyond the inter- mediate coxae, p. 134 SALDID^E. II. Beak not reaching the intermediate coxae. }. Front legs with greatly thickened femora. p. 138 PHYMATID^:. JJ. Front femora somewhat thickened, but much less than half as wide as long. p. 137. REDUVIID.'E. FF. Beak four-jointed. G. Front legs fitted for grasping prey, the tibiae being armed with spines and capable of being closed tightly upon the femora, which are stout. In the forms with long wings the membrane is usually furnished with four long veins, bounding three discal cells which are often open. From these cells diverge veins which form several marginal cells. (Fig. 142). p. 138. NABID^E. GG. Front legs fitted for walking. H. Wing-covers with cuneus. Membrane with one or two closed cells at its base, otherwise without veins. (Fig. 144.) p. 140 CAPSID^E. HH. Wing-covers without cuneus. Membrane with four or five simple or anastomosing veins arising from the base ; or with a large number of veins aris- ing from a cross-vein at the base. I. Ocelli wanting ; membrane with two large cells at the base, and from these arise about eight branching veins. (Fig. 145.) p. 140. PYRRHOCORID^E. II. Ocelli usually present. 128 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. J. Head with a transverse incision in front of the ocelli, which are always present. (Fig. 175.) p. 143 ......................... ____ BERYTID^E. JJ. Head without transverse incision. K. Membrane with four or five simple veins arising from the base of the membrane ; the two inner ones sometimes joined to a cell near the base. (Fig. 146.) p. 142 ....... LYG/EID^;. KK. Membrane with many, usually forked veins, springing from a transverse basal vein. (Fig. 147.) p. 143 ................ COREID/E. D. Antennae five-jointed. E. Scutellum nearly flat, narrowed behind. F. Tibiae unarmed or furnished with very short spines. p. 144 ................................ PENTATOMID.*;. FF. Tibiae armed with strong spines in rows. p. 145. EE. Scutellum very convex, covering nearly the whole ab- domen. F. Lateral margins of the scutellum with a furrow in which the edge of the wing-cover fits when closed. p. 146 ......... . ................... CORIMEL^NID.t. FF. Lateral margins of the scutellum without a furrow. p. 146 ............................... SCUTELLERID^E. In the following pages we have discussed the families of the Hete- roptera in the order in which they are commonly arranged by writers on these insects. The aquatic families are placed first, the semi- aquatic next, and the terrestrial last. We do not believe, however, that this represents well the lines of development of these insects. It seems probable to us that some of the terrestrial forms, as the Penta- tomidae, resemble the ancient Heteroptera more closely than do the aquatic forms ; and that the aquatic forms are really very highly spe- cialized and represent the summit of one of the lines of development. Perhaps the Scutelleridae represent the summit of another line. But as we have been unable to give the matter sufficiently thorough study to warrant our proposing a new arrangement, it seems best to follow the old one, merely indicating our belief in the necessity for a revision of the suborder. HEM IP TERA . 1 29 Family CORISID^E (Co-ris'i-dae). The Water-boatmen. These are oval, gray and black, mottled bugs, usually less than half an inch in length, which occur in the streams, ponds, and lakes of the whole United States. The characteristic form and markings of these insects are shown in Figure 148. These Water-boatmen have the body flattened above, and swim upon the ventral surface ; in these respects they differ from the mem- bers Of the next family. FlG - *&.Corisa undulata. The body of these insects, as they swim through the water, is almost completely enveloped in air, which glitters like a silver armor. This air is breathed by the insects while they remain under water, and in good water it is. purified by contact with the fine particles of air scattered through the water ; so that the insects can breathe their coats of air again and again indefinitely. This is the case especially when they are in their favorite attitude, anchored near the bottom of a pond or aquarium. Here they will remain for a long time clinging to some object by their fore legs, and with their hind legs stretched out sidewise ; these they move frequently as when swimming. The result of this movement is to cause a current of water to pass over the coat of air, purifying it. The body of these insects with the air clinging to it is much lighter than water ; consequently, whenever they loose their hold upon the object to which they have been clinging, they rise quickly to the surface, unless they prevent it by swimming. They occasionally float on the surface of the water, and can leap into the air from the water and take flight. They feed upon other insects and lay their eggs upon water-plants. All of the North American species of this family belong to the genus Corisa (Cor'i-sa). 130 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. Family NOTONECTID^E (No-to-nec'ti-dae). TJie Back-swimmers. The Back-swimmers have the back shaped like the bottom of a boat, instead of flat like the true water-boatmen and they differ from all other aquatic bugs in that they always swim on their backs. The favorite attitude of the Back-swimmers is floating on the surface of the water, back downward, with the hind end of the body projecting sufficiently to admit of air being drawn into the space beneath the wings. When in this position their long oar-like hind legs are stretched outward and forward, ready for action. When disturbed they dart away toward the bottom of the pond, carrying a supply of air beneath their wings. Occasionally these insects will float on the surface of the water with their backs uppermost ; and, like the water-boatmen, they can leap into the air from the water and take flight. The Back-swimmers feed upon insects and other small animals. In collecting them care must be taken or they will inflict painful stings with their sharp and powerful beaks. The greater number of our common spe- FIG. 149 Notonecta. c j es o f this family belong to the genus Noto- necta (No-to-nec'ta) (Fig. 149). Family NEPID^E (Nep'i-dae). The Water-scorpions. The Water-scorpions have two long bristles on the end of the body, which are grooved on the inner side. By put- ting these bristles together a long tube is formed, which the insects can project to the surface of the water, and thus ob- tain air for breathing, while resting on the bottom of the HEM1PTERA. \l\ pond, stilted on their long legs, or clinging head downward to the stems of plants. The most common members of this family belong to the genus Ranatra (Ran'a-tra) (Fig. 1 50). These are long, slender bugs with long, slender legs. The only other representative of the fam- ily found in the United States is Nepa apicnlata (Ne'pa a-pic-u la'ta). In this species the body is oval, flat, and thin, and measures about two thirds of an inch in length, not includ- ing the breathing-tube, which is a little more than one fourth of an inch long. (See Fig. 214, p. 174.) The Water-scorpions live among rubbish or on the stems of water- plants, in ponds and in the quiet parts of our streams. They are carnivo- rous, and have the first pair of legs fitted for seizing prey. In these legs the coxa is very long, and the femur is furnished with a groove into which FlG - s- the tibia and tarsus fit like the blade of a pocket-knife into the handle. Owing to the linear form of the body of Ranatra, and to the dirt with which it is usually covered, it is quite difficult to detect the presence of this insect among the rubbish where it is found. Doubtless this resemblance to a dirty stick aids it greatly in the capture of insects, small fish, and other unwary animals upon which it preys. Family BELOSTOMID,E (Bel-os-tom'i-dae). The Giant Water-bugs. We have named these insects the Giant Water-bugs as the family includes the largest Heteroptera now in existence. 132 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. Figure 151 represents a common form, natural size. Like other water-bugs, these insects fly readily from pond to pond, and they are frequently attracted to lights. This is especially the case where electric lights are used, into which they sometimes fly and are killed by hundreds. On this account they are known in many parts of the country as " Electric-light Bugs;" and in some sections the absurd idea prevails that they have appeared only recently, as if they were in some way a product of the FIG. 151. Belostoma. americanum. electric IJo'llt. Figure 151 represents Belostoma americanum (Be-los'to- ma a-mer-i-ca'num). In Belostoma the front femora are grooved for the reception of the tibiae, as in the preceding family. Another common representative of the family is Benacus griseus (Be-na'cus gris'e-us). This resembles Belos- toma americanum very closely, but can be distinguished from it by the absence of the femoral groove. There are other species of the family which are smaller and belong to the genus ZaitJia (Za'i-tha). Figure 152 rep- resents one of these, natural size. In the far West there is a common spe- cies which is an inch and a half long and about half as broad ; this is Scrphus dilatatus (Ser'phus dil-a-ta'tus). These insects are known to California children as " Toe-biters," owing to the great interest they are sup- posed to take in the feet of waders and swimmers. The Giant Water-bugs are rapacious creatures, feeding on other insects and small fish. With FIG. 152. Zaitha Jlu- minea. HEMIPTERA. 133 many of them the female fastens her eggs on the top of her own back with a thin layer of waterproof glue which she secretes for this purpose. Family NAUCORiDyE (Nau-cor'i-dae). The Creeping Water-bugs. This is a small family containing water-bugs of a moder- ate size, in which the front legs are fitted for grasping and the middle and hind legs for walking. They are flat-bodied, chiefly oval insects, and without appendages at the hind end of the body. The members of this family are predaceous ; and, accord- ing to Professor Uhler, they are fond of reedy and grassy, quiet waters, where they creep about like the Predaceous Diving-beetles, creeping and half swimming around and be- tween the leaves and sprays of the submerged plants, and suddenly seizing any unlucky water-boatman or other insect that happens to be within reach. Figure 153 represents Pelocoris femorata (Pe-loc'o-ris fem-o-ra'ta), the only species found in the States on the Atlantic coast. Several other species are found in the Western States. These belong to the genus Ambry sus (Am-bry'sus), which differs from Pelocoris in having the front margin of the prothorax very deeply sinuate. Family GALGULID^: (Gal-gu'li-dse). The Toad-shaped Bugs. There is sometimes found on the muddy margins of streams or in marshes, where the soil is moist, a curious bug, which on account of its short and broad body and projecting eyes reminds one of a toad ; this is Galgulus oculatus (Gal'gu- 134 THE STUDY OF INSECTS, lus oc-u-la'tus) (Fig. 154), the most common member of this family. Another species, Mononyx stygicus (Mon'o- nyx styg'i-cus), closely resembles this one in form, but can be distinguished by the fact that it has only a single claw on each front tarsus. A third FIG. 154-- member of the family is Pelogonus americanus (Pe- Galgulus, f , ocuintus. log'o-nus a-mer-i-ca'nus) ; this is a smaller insect, with a more oblong body, and of a velvety-black color. These three are all of the species of this family that have been found in the United States. They all are predaceous. Some members of this family are known to make burrows for themselves, and to live for a part of the time beneath the ground. Family SALDID/E (Sal'di-dae). 77/6' SJiore-bngs. These are certain small bugs, of dark colors with white or yellow markings, and with long antennae, which abound in the vicinity of streams and lakes, and upon damp soils, especially of marshes near our coasts. The shape of these Shore-bugs is shown by Figure 155 ; they belong to the genus Salda, the only genus representing this family in the United States, although many species occur here. FlG . 15S ._ Some of the Shore-bugs dig burrows, and live Salda - for a part of the time beneath the ground. They take flight quickly when disturbed, but alight after flying a short distance. Family VELTID^E (Ve-li'i-dae). . The Broad-shouldered Watcr-striders. There are many bugs that run upon the surface of the water. The greater number of them belong to the next fam- ily; but there are several genera which represent a family distinct from the true Water-striders, and which can be easily distinguished from them by the fact that the body is broad- HEMIPTERA. 135 est across the prothorax. These Broad-shouldered Water- striders constitute the family Veliidce. They pass the greater part of their lives upon the surface of the water, often con- gregating in schools containing hundreds of individuals ; but they usually remain near the banks of the stream or pond, and sometimes they leave the water, mov- ing on the land with great freedom. Like the members of the allied families, they are predaceous. Figure 156 represents one of these insects somewhat enlarged. FIG. 156. Rhagovelia co Ha ris. Family HYDROBATID^E (Hyd-ro-bat'i-dae). The Water-striders. On the quiet pools of a running stream or the calm waters of a protected pond may be found swarms of slender long-legged insects that seem to find the water surface a pavement well suited for their airy feet. If your approach is stealthy you may see them resting motionless as if ab- sorbed in gazing at their own reflections in the mirror below them ; but disturb them, and so swiftly do they move that they seem but darting lines as they circle around and around each other in a mystic dance. If you watch them closely you may see one leap into the air after some approach- ing insect. These are the true Water-striders. In some of them the body is long and narrow, as shown in Figure 157; in others it is oval ; but in all it is widest back of the pro- thorax, thus differing from the form seen in the pre- ceding family. In the winter they stow FIG. 157. Hygrotrechus confonnis, tl 1 i 1.1 themselves away under the banks or at the bottom of the water, and do not come to 136 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. the surface until lured there by the warm weather of spring, They then lay their eggs, gluing them fast to water-plants. There are members of this family that live on the sur- face of the ocean, hundreds of miles from land. Family LIMNOBATID.E (Lim-no-bat'i-dae). The MarsJi-treaders. Only a single species of this family, the Marsh-treader, Limnobates lincata (Lim-nob'a-tes lin-e-a'ta), is found in the United States. This is represented greatly enlarged by Figure 158. Although not an uncommon species, it is rarely seen on ac- count of its small size and quiet habits. It can be recognized by its linear form and the great length of its head, which is longer T than the thorax. It crawls about on the surface of the water or mud, or climbs upon 1 water-plants and sticks projecting from the water ; it seems to prefer stagnant ponds or marshes. We do not know upon what it feeds. FIG. 158. Limnobates Family EMESID^E (E-mes'i-dae). The Thread-legged Bugs. This family includes a small number of insects in which the body is very slender and the middle and hind legs are thread-like ; but the fore legs are fitted for grasping, resembling much those of the Mantes. Our most common species is the Long-legged Emesa, Emc- sa longipcs (Em'e-sa lon'- gi-pes), which is repre- sented by Figure 1 59. This FIG. 159.^ is found upon trees, or sometimes swinging by its long legs from the roofs of sheds or barns. It is predaceous. H EMITTER A. 137 Family REDUVUDyE (Red-u-vi'i-dae). T/ie Assassin-bugs. There are many bugs which destroy their fellows, but the members of this family are so pre-eminently predaceous that we call them the Assassin-bugs. Although they usually live on the blood of insects, in some cases they attack the higher animals, and occasionally even man suffers from them. Care should be used in collecting them, as some are apt to inflict painful stings with their beaks. In this family the beak is only three-jointed, and when not in use the tip rests in a groove between the fore legs. The family is a very large one, containing more than a hundred American species. In the Atlantic States one sometimes finds, in basements and in rooms but little used, a bug which presents a very curious appearance from having its body and legs completely covered with dust, so that it looks like a living mass of lint as it moves around. This is the Masked Bed-bug Hunter, Opsiccetus personatus (Op-si-cce'tus per-so-na'tus). This species infests houses for the sake of preying upon bed-bugs ; it also feeds upon flies and other insects. Its mask is worn only during youth, and consists of particles of dust and fibres which ad- here to a sticky substance with which the body, legs, and antennae are covered. The adult is black or very dark brown, and is represented by Figure 160. A closely allied species, which is black marked with red, insinuates itself into beds for a less com- mendable purpose than that of its ally, for it sucks human blood at first hand. This insect occurs in the Southern and Western States ; it is the Big Bed-bug, Conorhinus sanguisu- gus (Co-nor'hi-nus san-gui-su'gus). Nearly all the members of this family, however, live upon trees and other plants, and prey upon insects. 138 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. Family NABID^E (Nab'i-dae). The Damsel-bugs. We have called the members of this family the Damsel- bugs for want of a better name, " little girl " being the mean- ing of Coriscus, the scientific name of our most common genus. Figure 161 represents a wing-cover of a member of this family, and will illustrate the venation char- acteristic of it, although in some species the wings are usually rudimentary. We have two common members of this family, one blonde and the other black. The Blonde Damsel-bug, Corisats ferns (Co-ris'cus fe'rus), is about one-third inch in length, and pale yellow, with nu- merous minute brown dots. This species is widely distrib- uted, both in this country and in Europe. It secretes itself in flowers or among the foliage of various herbaceous plants, and captures small in- sects, upon which it feeds. There are several other species that closely resemble this one. The Black Damsel-bug, Coriscus subcoleoptratus FIG. 162. / 1 1 /., \ /T-- \ Coriscus (sub-co-le-op-tra tus) (r ig. 102), is very common in subcoieop- the Northern States. It is of a shining jet-black color, with the edge of the abdomen and the legs yellowish. Usually this species has very short, rudimentary wings, but a form with long wings is sometimes found. Family PHYMATID^E (Phy-mat'i-dae). The A mbitsh-bngs. The most common member of this family is Phymata ivoljfii (Phy-ma'ta wolf'i-i) (Fig. 163). It is a greenish insect, with a black band across the broadly expanded abdomen. It conceals itself in flowers, and captures FIG. i6 3 . the insects which come to sip nectar. It is espe- cially abundant among the flowers of the golden-rod. H EMITTER A. 139 It has wonderfully strong, grasping front legs, and can over- come insects much larger than itself. Family ARADID^: (A-rad'i-dae). The Flat-bugs. These are the flattest of all bugs, the body appearing as if it had been stepped upon. They live in the cracks or under the bark of decaying trees. The form of the body is especially adapted for gliding about in these cramped situations. They are usually of a dull -brown color, but are sometimes varied with reddish or pale markings. Figure 164 represents a common species. Family TlXGITID^: (Tin-git 'i-dse). The Lace-bugs. Dainty as fairy brides are these tiny, lace-draped insects. One glance at the fine white meshes that cover the wings and spined thorax is sufficient to distinguish them from all other insects, for these are the only ones that are clothed from head to foot in fine white Brussels net. They live upon acutus. FlG. 165. Corythuca arcu- ata. (From the Author's Report for 1879.) FIG. 166. Eggs and nymph of Corythuca arcuata. (From the Author's Report for 1879-) the juices of plants, and in the case of the Hawthorn Tingis (Fig. c i65) sometimes prove too numerous for the health of their plant host. 140 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. They are very small insects, rarely measuring more than one eighth of an inch in length. Their eggs are fastened to leaves, and covered by a brown, sticky substance ; they appear more like fungi than like the eggs of other insects (Fig. 1 66). Family ACANTHIID/E (Ac-an-thi'i-dae). The Bed-bug and the Flower-bugs. The Bed-bug, AcantJiia lectularia (A-can'thi-a lec-tu-la'- ri-a), is a well-known pest over the greater part of the world. It is reddish brown in color, and measures when full-grown from one-sixth to one-fifth inch in length. The body is ovate FIG. 167. Acan- . , thia lectularia. \\\ outline and is very flat (rig. 167). It is wingless, or has very short and rudimentary wing-covers. The Bed-bug is a nocturnal insect, hiding by day in the cracks of furniture and beneath various objects. Bed-bugs are easily destroyed by wetting the cracks in which they hide with corrosive sublimate dissolved in alcohol. This is sold by druggists under the name of bed-bug poison. Py- rethrum powder blown into the cracks will destroy these insects, and, unlike corrosive sublimate, is not poisonous to man. A closely allied species, A. hirundinis (hir-un-di'nis) occurs in nests of the barn-swallow. There are certain small bugs that are closely allied to the Bed-bug, but which have wing-covers that are almost always fully developed. These are the Flower-bugs. They are found in a great variety of situations, often upon trees and flowers, sometimes under bark or rubbish. They are predaceous. Figure 168 represents a wing-cover of one of these insects. Family CArsiD.E (Cap'si-dae). The Leaf-bugs. This is the largest family of the Heteroptera; the members of it live chiefly upon the leaves of plants, HEM1PTERA. 14! from which they derive their nourishment, but some of them are predaceous. The most avail- able character for distinguishing these insects is the structure of the wing-covers ; at the base of FlG- J6g - the membrane there are one or two cells, otherwise the membrane is without veins (Fig. 169). More than two hundred species belonging to this fam- ily are known to occur in the United States. Figure 170 represents the Four-lined Leaf-bug, Poscilocapsus lineatus (Pce-cil-o-cap'sus lin-e-a'tus), a yellow bug, with its prothorax and wing- FIG. i 7 o. Pvcii- covers marked with black, which is abundant tus. s> ' in early summer on the leaves of currant- bushes and of sage. f Family PYRRHOCORlDyE (Pyr-rho-cor'i-dae). The Red-bug' Family. The members of this family are rather stout and heavily formed bugs, and are generally black or brown, marked with red. Some members of the next family resemble these in markings, but the two families can be distinguished by the venation of IG ' I?1 ' the membrane of the wing-covers. In this family there are two large cells at the base of the membrane, and from these arise branching veins (Fig. 171). The most important species of this family is the Red-bug, or Cotton-stainer, Dysdercus suturellus (Dys-der'cus su-tu- rerius) (Fig. 172). The adult is of a reddish color ; the wing- covers are pale brown, with pale-yellow stripes. The young are bright red, with black legs. They do much damage by piercing the stems and bolls of the cotton-plant and sucking the juices, but do much more damage by staining the cotton in the open- ing bolls. They also puncture the rind of oranges in Florida, so that decay soon sets in, and the FIG. 172. /^-fruit drops. These insects can be trapped by dercus sutu-. . laying chips of sugar-cane around the cotton- 142 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. fields. In orange-groves heaps of cotton-seed as well as pieces of sugar-cane will be found useful ; the insects will collect in these places and can be scalded to death. Family LYG/EID^E (Ly-gae'i-dse). Tlie Chinch-bug Family. This, too, is a large family, about one hundred and fifty species being known to occur in the United States. Here the membrane of the wing-covers is furnished with four or five simple FIG. 173. . ...... . veins, which arise trom the base of the mem- brane ; sometimes the two inner veins are joined to a cell near the base (Fig. 173). This family contains the Chinch-bug, Blissus Icucopterus (Blis'sus leu-cop'te-rus), the most destructive member of the Heteroptera occurring in the United States. Although quite widely distributed, its injuries have attracted most attention in the Missis- sippi Valley, where it has destroyed many /V;/ ,, million dollars' worth of grain. It is a small FlG I74 _ BliMUt bug, measuring less than one sixth of an inch in length. In Figure 174 it is represented slightly enlarged and greatly enlarged. It is blackish in color, with snowy- white wing -covers, each marked with a dark spot and Y-shaped line, as shown in the figure. The species is di- morphic, there being a short-winged form. There are two generations of the Chinch-bug each year ; they winter as full-grown insects and hide under rubbish. In the early spring they come forth and lay their eggs in fields of grain upon the roots or stems beneath the ground. The eggs hatch in about two weeks. The nymphs are red, and feed at first upon roots ; afterwards they attack the stalks of the plants they infest. In about fifty days they get their growth. About this time the whole brood starts out to find new pastures, and they all march on foot in one direction, like an army. Although they are tiny insects they HEMIPTERA. 143 number millions, and so attract much attention. As soon as they find a new field of grain they lay their eggs there for another brood. No satisfactory means of combating this insect was known until recently. But it has now been ascertained that it is destroyed by a contagious disease which can be spread artificially. Diseased bugs are sent to places where the dis. ease does not exist ; and thus the contagion is spread. Extensive experiments are being carried on in Kansas at the time of this writing, and the results so far seem very encour- aging. Family BERYTID^E (Be-ryt'i-dae). 77/i? Stilt-bugs. This family includes a small number of land bugs, in which the body, legs, and antennae are very slender, resembling somewhat the thread-legged bugs (Emesidae). The stilt bugs have the tip of the femora, the tip of the first joint of the antennae, and the last joint of the antennae somewhat enlarged (Fig. 175). Only two species have been found in the United States. These are Neides muticus (Ne'i-des mu'ti-cus), which has a prominent spine on the vertex of the head ; and Jalysus spinosus (Jal'y-sus spi- FIG. ^.-jaiysus spiiiosus. no'sus), which, although spined in other places, lacks the spine on the vertex. These are sluggish insects, found in the undergrowth of woods and in meadows and pastures. Family COREID^-E (Co-re'i-dae). The SquasJi-bug Family. This family is also a very extensive one, including many species. The best character for distinguishing the members 144 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. of it is the nature of the venation of the membrane of the wing-covers. This part is furnished with many veins, most of which spring from a cross-vein near its base (Fig. 176). FIG. 176. The Squash-bug, Anasa tristis (An'a-sa tris'- tis), is a good example of this great family. These when full- grown are brownish-black bugs, with some yellow spots along the edges of the abdomen (Fig. 177), and are dirty yellow on the under side. This bug winters in the adult state, and takes the first opportunity in the spring to lay its eggs on the earliest sprouts of squash and pumpkin vines. As soon as they hatch, the young bugs attack the vines and are apt to destroy them _ * FIG. 177. Anasa entirely. The remedy is to protect the young plants by frames covered with netting. Family PENTATOMID^E (Pen-ta-tom'i-dse). TJic St ink-bug Family- This is a family the taste and odor of which most of us know to our sorrow. We learn the flavor in one experience, and conclude that once is enough for a lifetime. To those who live in cities it may always remain a mystery why one berry looking just like another should taste and smell so differently ; but all barefooted boys and sun-bonneted girls from the country who have picked the wild strawberries on the hillsides or scratched their hands and faces in raspberry patches know well the angular green or brown bugs that leave a loathsome trail behind them ; and they will tell you, too, that the bugs themselves are worse than their trail, for it is a lucky youngster that has not taken one of these insects into his mouth by mistake with a handful of berries. It should not be concluded, however, that only members of this family possess this disagreeable odor ; for most of the Heteroptera protect themselves by rendering their bodies unpalatable in this way. Doubtless birds soon learn this HEMIPTERA. 1 45 fact and leave such bugs alone. But it is to members of this family that the expressive name given above is com- monly applied. This nauseous odor is caused by a fluid which is excreted through two openings, one on each side of the lower side of the body near the middle coxae. In this family the antennae are five-jointed ; the scu- tellum, although large, is less than half as long as the abdo. men ; and the front legs are not fitted for digging (Fig. 178). Some species of this family feed upon other insects, and so are very helpful to the farmer, one species especially being a gallant fighter against the potato-beetle. Other species feed entirely 3 upon vegetables, while others live upon both F' r - T 7 s. -A c Stink-bug. vegetable and animal matter. The Harlequin Cabbage-bug or Calico-back, Murgantia Jiistronica (Mur-gan'ti-a his-tron'i-ca), is very destructive to cabbages, radishes, and turnips in the Southern States and on the Pacific coast. It is black with bands, stripes, and margins of red or orange or yellow. The full-grown bugs live through the winter, and in the early spring each female lays on the under surface of the young leaves about twelve eggs in two parallel rows. The young bugs are pale green, with black spots. They mature in a few days, so there are many generations in one season. It is difficult to find a remedy for this pest, but much can be done by placing cabbage and turnip leaves on the ground in early spring, and thus trapping them when they first come out of their winter quarters. Family CYDNID^: (Cyd'ni-das). The Burro^.ver-biigs. These are oval, rounded, or elliptical bugs, with five- jointed antennae ; with the scutellum large, but less than 146 THE .STUDY OF INSECTS. half as long as the abdomen ; and with the front legs more or less flattened, fitted for digging (Fig. 179). The species are generally black or very dark brown. They are found burrowing in sandy places, or on the surface of the ground beneath sticks and FIG. 179. Cyrtome- stones, or at the roots of grass and other herbage. nits tin- => t> The family is not a large one. The members of it probably feed upon plants ; but it is desirable that further observation be made upon the habits of this family. Family CORIMEL^ENID^E (Cor-i-me-laen'i-dse). The Negro-bugs. These bugs are mostly black, and are beetle-like in appearance ; some have a bluish or greenish tinge, and all are very convex. The scutellum is very convex, and, as in the following family, covers nearly the whole of the abdo- men. But in this family there is at the base of the scutellum on each side a short furrow into which the edge of the wing-cover fits when at rest. All of our species belong to the genus Corimelcsna (Cor-i-me-lae'na). These insects infest various plants, and often injure raspberries and other fruit by imparting a disagreeable odor to them. Fig. 180 represents one of these bugs, some- what enlarged. Family SCUTELLERID.E (Scu-tel-ler'i-dae). The Shield-backed Hugs. The members of this family resemble the negro-bugs in the shape and size of the scutellum, which covers nearly the whole of the abdomen ; but the sides of the scutellum are not furnished with a groove for receiving the edge of the wing-covers. Fig. 181 repre- FlG . l&I .- sents one of these insects enlarged. They feed upon plants. FIG. 180. r<-/- m el IF mi atra. tcr alternaius. HEMIPTEKA. Suborder PARASITA (Par-a-si'ta). '47 The Parasita includes certain parasites of man and other mammals, commonly known as lice. They are wingless, and differ from other Hemiptera in having the beak fleshy and not jointed. This suborder is represented in the United States by only one family, the Pcdiculidce. Family PEDICULID^E (Ped-i-cu'li-dae). TJic Lice. This family comprises the true lice, which differ from the bird-lice of the order Mallophaga in having sucking mouth- parts. The true lice live on the skin of mammals, and suck their blood. There are three species that infest man : one living on the head, among the hair ; and the other two on the body. Several species infest our domestic animals. The more FIG. \Zz.-HiEmatopinus asini. (From Law.) FIG. 183. H. eurysternus. (From Law.) common of these are the louse of the horse (Fig. 182), and the louse of the cow (Fig. 183). Various substances are used for destroying lice on domes- tic animals : among them are a strong infusion of tobacco, 148 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. an ointment made of one part sulphur and four parts lard, Scotch snuff, powdered wood ashes, and kerosene emulsion. The remedy should be applied thoroughly, and repeated several times at intervals of three or four days, in order to destroy the young which may hatch after the first application. The stable and the places where the cattle are in the habit of rubbing should also be whitewashed or sprayed with kerosene, or strong kerosene emulsion. Suborder HOMOPTERA (Ho-mop'te-ra). Cicadas, Leaf-hoppers, ApJiids, Scale-bugs and others. The Homoptera includes insects of widely diversified form, but which agree, however, in having the wings when present of the same thickness throughout, and usually slop- ing roof-like at the sides of the body when at rest, and in having the beak arise from the hinder part of the lower side of the head (Fig. 140, b). The name is from two Greek words : hovws, same ; and ptcron, a wing. This suborder includes nine families, which are designated as follows : The Cicadas, Family ClCADlD/E (p. 149). The Lantern-fly Family, Family FuLGORID^E (p. 151). The Spittle Insects, Family CERCOPID^E (p. 152). The Leaf-hoppers, Family JASSID/E (p. 153). The Tree-hoppers, Family MEMBRACID^E (p. 154). The Jumping Plant-lice, Family PsYLLID^E (p. 155), The Plant-lice, Family APHIDID^E (p. 156). The Aleyrodes, Family ALEYRODID^E (p. 163). The Scale-bugs, Family CocciD^E (p. 164). CLASSIFICATION OF THE HOMOPTERA. (For advanced students.} TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE FAMILIES OF THE HOMOPTERA. A. Beak evidently arising from the head ; tarsi three-jointed ; anten- nae minute, bristle-like. HEMIPTERA. 149 B. With three ocelli, and the males with musical organs. Usually large insects, with all the wings entirely membranous, p. 149. ClCADID^E. BB. Ocelli only two in number or wanting ; males without musi- cal organs. C. Antennae inserted on the sides of the cheeks beneath the eyes. p. 151 FuLGORlD^E. CC. Antennae inserted in front of and between the eyes. D. Prothorax not prolonged above the abdomen. E. Hind tibiae armed with one or two stout teeth, and the tip crowned with short stout spines p. 152... CERCOPID/E. EE. Hind tibiae having a row of spines below p. 153. JASSID^E. DD. Prothorax prolonged into a horn or point above the abdomen, p. 154 MEMBRACIM:. AA. Beak apparently arising from between the front legs, or absent; tarsi one or two jointed ; antennae usually prominent and thread- like, sometimes wanting. B. Tarsi usually two-jointed ; wings when present four in number. C. Wings transparent. D. Hind legs fitted for leaping; antennae nine or ten jointed. p. 155 PSYLLID/E. D. Legs long and slender, not fitted for leaping ; antennae three to seven jointed, p. 1 56 APHIDID.*. CC. Wings opaque, whitish ; wings and body covered with a whitish powder, p. 163 ALEYRODIDYE. BB. Tarsi one-jointed ; adult male without any beak, and with only two wings; female wingless, with the body either scale- like or gall-like in form, or grub-like and clothed with wax. The waxy covering may be in the form of powder, of large tufts or plates, of a continuous layer, or of a thin scale beneath which the insect lives, p. 164 COCCID^E. Family ClCADID/E (Ci-cacl'i-dae). The Cicadas (Ci-ca'das). The large size and well-known songs of the more common species of this family render them familiar objects. It is only necessary to refer to the Periodical Cicada (or the seventeen- year locust, as it has been improperly termed) and to the 150 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. Dog-day Harvest-fly (Fig. 184) to give an idea of the more striking characters of this family. We have several species much smaller than either of these ; but their characteristic form and the presence of three ocelli are sufficient to distinguish them from the members of the other families. The Periodical Cicada, Cicada scp- tendccim (Ci-ca'da sep-ten'de-cim), is very generally known in this country, owing to the great numbers in which it appears, at long intervals of time. This periodical appearance is due to the long time required for the nymphs FiG.x84.-c&*to<*. to obtajn their growth either seven- teen or thirteen years and to the fact that all the members of one generation appear in the adult state at about the same time. The adult female lays her eggs in slits which she makes in the twigs of trees. Small fruit is sometimes in- jured in this way. The eggs hatch in about six weeks. The young nymphs rinding no attraction in a world of sun- shine and of flowers, drop to the ground and bury them- selves in the earth, thus commencing a voluntary seclusion which lasts for years. They live by sucking the juices from the roots of trees. In May of the seventeenth year after their retirement to their earthy cloisters they crawl up to the surface of the ground, like renegade monks ; and, leav- ing their nymph-skins clinging to the tree-trunks, like cast- off garments of penance, they come forth, broad-headed, broad-bodied, clear-winged creatures, well fitted to get all the experience possible out of a world whose frivolities they have so long scorned. But, like other creatures, they find a life of dissipation very exhausting, and after a few weeks they sing their last song, lay their eggs, and pass away. In the South these insects live only thirteen years under HEM1PTERA. 15 1 ground, but in the North it requires seventeen years for a nymph to reach maturity. More than twenty distinct broods of this species have been traced out. In many localities several broods coexist ; this explains the fact that in such places these insects ap- pear several times during a single period of seventeen years. There is a common species of Cicada known as the Dog- day Harvest-fly or Lyreman, Cicada tibicen (Ci-ca'da ti-bi'cen), which requires only two years for its development, and as there are two broods of this species the adults appear every year. This Cicada (Fig. 184) is black and green in color, and more or less powdered beneath. And its song is tlie high, sharp trill that comes to us, midsummer noons, from the depths of trees where the singer is hidden amid the foliage, all unconscious that its shrill note has for centuries been a theme for poets. Family FULGORID.E (Ful-gor'i-dae). The Lantern-fly Family. This family is remarkable for certain exotic forms which it contains. Chief among these is the great Lantern-fly of Brazil, which is figured in many popular works on insects. Scarcely less strange are the Candle-flies of China and the East Indies. The popular names of these insects refer to the fact that they are phosphorescent, but we know of no native species that possesses this peculiarity. There does not seem to be any typical form of the body characteristic of this family. The different genera differ so greatly, that on superficial examination they appear to have very little in common. Some even resemble butterflies and moths, while others might easily be mistaken for neuropterous genera. The most useful character for recognizing these insects is the form and position of the antennae. These are bristle- shaped, and inserted in a button-shaped base on the side of IS 2 THE STUDY OF INSECTS the cheek beneath the eyes. Although the Fulgoridae are vegetable feeders, none of our species have attracted the at- tention of agriculturists. There are, however, certain exotic species which do great injury to crops. The two accompanying figures will serve to show the wonderful variations in form of these insects; many other types exist. Figure 185 represents a common species of Sco- lops (Sco'lops), which occurs in grassy places. In this genus the head is greatly prolonged, as with the exotic Candle-flies. FIG. 185. Scolafs. FIG. 186. Ormenis seftcn- trionnlis. Figure 186 represents Ornicnis septentrionalis (Or'me-nis sep- ten-tri-o-na'lis), a beautiful pale-green species powdered with white, which feeds on wild grape-vines, drawing nourishment from the tender shoots and mid-ribs of the leaves during its young stages. Family CERCOPID/E (Cer-cop'i-dae). The Spittle Insects or Frog-hoppers. During the summer months one often finds upon various shrubs and herbs masses of white froth. In the midst of each of these masses there lives a young insect, a member of this family. In some cases as many as four or five insects inhabit the same mass of foam. The froth is supposed to consist of sap, which the insect has pumped from the plant, by means of its beak, and passed through its alimentary canal. It is asserted that these insects undergo all their transformations within this mass ; that when one is about to molt for the last time, a clear space is formed about its body ; the superficial part of the foam dries, so as to form a vaulted roof to a closed chamber, within which the change HEMIPTEKA. 153 of the skin is made. The adult insects wander about on herbage and trees. They have the power of leaping well. The name frog-hoppers has doubtless grown out of the fact that formerly the froth was called " frog-spittle," and was supposed to have been voided by tree-frogs from their mouths. The name is not, however, inappropriate, for the broad and depressed form of our more common species is something like that of a frog. In this family the antennae are inserted in front of and between the eyes ; the prothorax is not prolonged back of the abdomen (as in the Membracidae) ; and the tibiae are armed with one or two stout teeth, and the tip crowned with short, stout spines, as shown in Figure 187. This figure represents the most com- FIG. 187. mon spittle insect of the Eastern United States, rophora . . / / rangulans. ApJiropJiora quadrangularis (A-phroph o-ra quad- ran-gu-la'ris), and one of its tibiae greatly enlarged. Family JASSID^; (Jas'si-dae). T/te Leaf-hoppers. The most abundant members of the Homoptera, except perhaps the Aphids, are the leaf-hoppers. Large numbers of them can be easily collected by sweeping grass, herbage, or the foliage of shrubs. The leaf-hoppers are more slender than the spittle insects, and are also distinguished by the form of the hind tibiae, which are nearly or quite as long as the abdomen, curved, and armed with a row of spines on each margin (Fig. 188). ft' C-'V FIG. iz&.-proco- Among the leaf-hoppers that have attracted attention on account of their injuries to vegeta- tion are the following : The destructive Leaf-hopper, Cicadula exitiosa (Ci-cad'u-la ex-it-i-o'sa), which is represented greatly enlaro-ed by Figure 189, sometimes infests winter wheat to a serious extent in the Southern States. The Grape- 154 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. vine Leaf-hopper, Erythroneura vitis (E-ryth-ro- neu'ra vi'tis)-, is a well-known pest that infests the leaves of the grape. It is about one-eighth inch in length, crossed by two blood-red bands, and a third dusky one at the apex. It is often improp. erly called the " Thrip" by grape-growers. But the term Thrip or better Thrips should be restricted to members of the order Physopoda. The Rose Leaf-hopper, Enipoa roses (Em'po-a ro'sse), is also a (From'the well-known pest, as it often swarms on the leaves Reportfor roses, doing great damage. Its presence is kins usually indicated by numerous white cast adhering to the lower side of the leaves. The leaf-hoppers can be destroyed by a strong solution of soap, or with kerosene emulsion. In vineyards, where the use of these substances would injure the fruit, they can be trapped by two persons carrying a screen covered with tarred paper on one side of a row of vines, while a third per- son walking on the other side of the row frightens them from the vines on to the screen. Dead leaves and other rubbish, among which these insects hibernate, should be burned during the winter. Family MEMBRACID^E (Mem-brac'i-dae). The Tree-hoppers. Nature must have been in a joking mood when tree- hoppers were developed, for these little creatures are most FIG. igo. Tree-hoppers. HEMIP TERA . 155 comically grotesque in appearance. In general outline they resemble beech-nuts, except that many have humps on their backs. The prothorax is prolonged back- ward like a roof over the body, often quite covering it. If the young entomologist wishes to laugh, let him look at the faces of tree-hoppers through a lens (Fig. 190). Their eyes always have a k droll look, and the line that separates the head balus ' from the prothorax gives them the appearance of wearing glasses. In some cases the prothorax is elevated above the head, so that it looks like a peaked nightcap ; in others it is shaped like a Tam-o'- l~ Shanter ; and sometimes it has horns, one on each side, which have given one species the name of the Buffalo Tree-hopper. Many species of this family live upon bushes or small trees, and are all good leapers ; hence the com- mon name, Tree-hoppers. Some species ex- crete honey-dew, and are attended by ants. J*^ All feed upon plants, but they seldom appear FlG . I94 ._7v/ (l . in sufficient numbers to do much damage. The accompanying figures will show some of the more common forms seen in this strange family (Figs. 191-194). Family PSYLLID^E (Psyl'li-dae). The Jumping Plant-lice. The jumping plant-lice are comparatively small insects ; our more common species measuring only from one-eighth to one-sixth inch in length, and it is rare that we find any twice that size. When examined with a lens they appear like tiny Cicadas (Fig. 195). Their hind legs are formed for jumping ; their antennae are nine or ten jointed, and their tarsi are only two-jointed. Figure 197 repre- sents the wings of a common species. FlG en?lr^ed SylIa ' The Psyllidae subsist entirely upon the 5 6 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. juices of plants, and some of them cause serious injuries. Many species form galls ; one of the larger of these infest the Celtis or Hackberry. FIG. 196. The Pea-rtree Psylla, greatly enlarged. FIG. 107. Venation of Wings: .?, stigma; C lowish-wliite powder. The in- which is beautifull ribbed. The Mealy-bugs, Dactylopius (Dac-ty-lo'pi-us). The HEMIPTEKA. 167 FIG. 205. Dactylopius citri, fe- male, enlarged. (From the Author's Report for 1880.) FIG. 204. Dactylopiits longispi- n?is, female, enlarged. (From the Author's Report for 1880.) FIG. 206. Kermes sp., on Quercus agrifolia.. Adult females on stem; immature males on leaves. (From the Author's Report for 1880.) i68 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. Mealy Bugs are the most common and the most noxious of green-house pests ; and in the warmer regions, as in Florida, they infest plants in the open air. Two species are shown greatly enlarged in Figures 204 and 205. These insects are extremely difficult to combat, as the white powder with which the body is clothed protects them from the sprays and washes ordinarily used. Kcnncs. Species of this genus are common upon oaks wherever they grow. These insects are remarkable for the wonderful gall-like form of the adult females. So striking is this resemblance, that they have been mistaken for galls by many entomologists. Figure 206 represents a species of this genus upon Qucrcus agrifolia. The gall-like swellings on the stem are the adult females are the immature males. Orthezia (Or-the'zi-a).- the smaller scales on the leaves genus The members of this occur not uncommonly on vari- ous weeds. They are remark- able for the calcareous secretion with which the body is clothed. This is in the form of lone o plates. Figure 207 represents a nymph ; in the adult female the secretion becomes more elongated posteriorly, and forms a sac containing the eggs mixed with a fine down. Later when the young are born, they remain in the sac till they have themselves secreted a sufficient FIG. 207. Orthezia, enlarged. (From ^ n -, n ., nt - o f t ] 1p lamellar rnnf-t-f-r the Author's Report for iSSoj "\vn arf=> naracirir in thf figured the fore legs were twisted known, ar paraSl somewhat in order to show the form egg-sacs of spiders. Five species of the family are known from the United States ; four of these belong to the genus Mantispa (Man- tis'pa) and one to Syi/ip/iasis (Sym'pha-sis). i So STUDY OF INSECTS. Family CHRYSOPID.E (Chry-sop'i-dae). The Lace-winged-flies or Aphis-lions. If one will search the foliage of herbs, shrubs, or trees, there may be found, running rapidly around on the leaves, sturdy, spindle-formed, little insects that have great sickle- shaped jaws (Fig. 219). These larvse are always hungry, and will kill and eat any insects that they can overpower ; FIG. 219. Eggs, larva, cocoon, and adult of Chrysopa. but as they are especially destructive to plant-lice, they are called Aphis-lions. When an Aphis-lion is full grown it rolls itself up into a tiny ball and weaves around itself a glistening, white cocoon, which looks like a large seed-pearl. It ma}' be supposed that while the Aphis-lion is secluded in this pearly cell it repents its greedy, murderous ways, and changes in spirit ; at least the body changes greatly, for, after a time, a circular lid is made in the cocoon, and out of this emerges a beautiful, dainty creature, with delicate-veined, green wings, a pale green body, slender, brown antennas, and a pair of large eyes that shine like melted gold. It is NE UR OP TERA . 1 8 1 sometimes called Golden-eyes, and sometimes, a Lace-winged- fly, from its appearance. The Lace-wing is a prudent mother ; she knows that if she lays her eggs together on a leaf the first Aphis-lion that hatches will eat for his first meal all his unhatched brothers and sisters. She guards against this fratricide by laying each egg on the top of a stiff stalk of hard silk about half an inch high. Groups of these eggs are very pretty, looking like a tiny forest of white stems bearing on their summits round glistening fruit. When the first of the brood hatches, he scrambles down as best he can from his egg perch to the surface of the leaf, and runs off, quite unconscious that the rest of his family are reposing in peace high above his head. The mouth-parts of these larvae are very unusual in form. The mandibles are very long ; on the lower side of each of them there is a furrow the entire length ; into this furrow the long and slender maxilla fits. In this way the mandible and the maxilla of each side form a tube, through which the blood of the prey of the insect can be drawn. This explains why an Aphis lion holds its prey on the tips of its long jaws, at arm's length, as it were, while sucking its blood. Nearly all of the members of this family belong to the genus Chrysopa (Chry-so'pa). Family HEMEROBIIDyE (Hem-e-ro-bi'i-dae). The Hemerobians (Hcin-e-ro'bi-aiis). The common members of this family are rather dark- colored insects, with the wings mottled with dark brown or smoky specks, and with some of the veins between the costa and subcosta forked. The most conspicuous member of the family is Polys- tcecJwtcs punctatus (Pol-ys-tcech'o-tes punc-ta'tus), which is represented natural size by Figure 220. The larva is unknown. 1 82 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The larger number of the species of this family belong to the genus Hemerobius (Hem-e-ro'bi-us). These are small- ish insects, the largest of. which expands hardly an inch. They occur in forests, and especially FIG. 220. Polystcechotes puncttitus. on cone -bearing trees. The larvae bear a strong resem- blance to the Aphis-lions, and like them feed upon Aphids and other small insects. After sucking the blood from their victims, they make cloaks for themselves of the empty skins. Family MYRMELEONID^E (Myr-me-le-on'i-dae). The Ant-lions and of hers. The Ant-lions, Myrmeleon (Myr-me'le-on). - - In sandy places beneath overhanging cliffs, beneath buildings, and along sandy banks where the sun shines warmest, there may be found, in all parts of our land, little, funnel-shaped pits one or two inches across (Fig. 221). The sides are smooth and as steep as the sand will lie ; and at the bottom may be seen two small curved objects. All is still and motionless until some ant, hurrying along with mind intent upon business, carelessly runs over the edge of one of these pitfalls. Then the ant commences to slide down, while some force below throws out the sand from under its struggling feet, until it slides into the bottom, where literally jaws of death are awaiting it. For the curved objects are a pair of jaws, attached to a strong head, and closely connected with a greedy stomach. If we dig out the owner of the jaws we find it a spry, humpbacked creature, which moves backward more easily than forward. It is worth while to collect some FIG. 221. Pitfall of an Ant-lion. NEUROPTERA. 183 of these larvae, and place them in a basin of sand, and watch them build their pits. They do this by using the head for a shovel. Sometimes when an ant seems likely to escape, the Ant-lion will throw up a torrent of sand so that it will descend on the victim, knocking it back into the pit. When ready to change to a pupa the Ant-lion makes for itself a little, round cocoon of sand fastened together and lined with silk. The adult Ant-lion is a graceful insect with long, narrow, delicate wings, and a slender body (Fig. 222). FIG. 222. Larva, cocoon with pupa-skin projecting, and adult of an Ant-lion, Certain members of this family differ from the ant-lions in having long, filiform antennae, which are suddenly en- larged at the end. These belong to the genus Ascalaplius (As-cal'a-phus). CHAPTER XVI. Order MECOPTERA (Me-cop'te-ra). TIic Scorpion-flics and oiJicrs. The members of this order have four wings ; these are membranous, and furnished with numerous veins. The head is prolonged into a beak, at the end of which biting month parts are situated. The metamorphosis is complete. This is a small order composed of very remarkable in- sects. The most striking character common to all is the shape of the head, which is prolonged into a beak (Fig. 223). The name Mecoptera is from two Greek words ; mccos, length ; and ptcron, a wing. This order includes only a single family, the Panorpidce. Family PANORPlD.t (Pa-nor'pi-dae). The Scorpion-flies and others. We have found representatives of this family quite abundant on rank herbage growing on FIG 22- Head t ^ ie banks of a shaded stream; we have also **orpa^ ^"' f un d them in clamp woods where there was a luxuriant undergrowth of herbaceous plants. These insects take flight readily when disturbed ; they are car- nivorous both in the adult and in the larval state. The larvae larvse so far as known are remarkable on account of their great resemblance to caterpillars. Not only is the form of the body like that of a caterpillar, but the abdomen is fur- nished with fleshy pro-legs. There are, however, eight pairs of these ; while caterpillars, as a rule, have only five. 184 MECOPTERA. 1 85 The most common members of this family are the Scorpion-flies, Panorpa (Pa-nor'pa). These are called Scor- pion-flies on account of the peculiar form of the caudal part of the abdomen of the male (Fig 223). This at first sight suggests the corresponding part of a scorpion ; but in reality the two are very different. The last segment, instead of ending in a sting like that of a scorpion, is greatly enlarged and bears a pair of clasping organs. The wings are nar- row but are well developed, being longer than the body. In our more common species they are FlG 224 ._/>,,. yellowish, spotted with brownish black (Fig. 224). *"*"' adult - Very closely allied to the Scorpion-flies are the insects of the genus Bittacus (Bit'ta-cus). These insects have long narrow wings, long legs, and a slender abdomen. They re- semble crane-flies very closely when on the wing. In this genus the caudal appendages of the male are not enlarged as in Panorpa. The species of the genus Boreus (Bo're-us) are remarka- ble for occurring on snow, in the winter, in our Northern States. CHAPTER XVII. Order TRICHOPTERA (Tri-chop'te-ra)c The Caddicc-flics or Caddice-worms. TJic members of this order have four wings ; these are membranous, furnished witJi numerous longitudinal veins but with only feiv cross veins, and are more or less densely elothed with hairs. The mouth-farts are rudimentary. The meta- morphosis is complete. The Caddice-flies are moth-like insects which are com- mon in the vicinity of streams, ponds, and lakes ; and they are also frequently attracted to lights at night. The body-wall of these insects is soft, being membran- ous or at the most parchment-like, and is thickly clothed with hairs. There are usually four ample wings. These are membranous ; but the fore pair are more leathery than the hind pair. When not in use they are folded against the sides of the abdomen, in an almost vertical position, and give the insect a narrow and elongated appearance (Fig. 225). The wings are more or less densely clothed with hairs ; and in some cases the hairs are scale-like in form. The hind wings are usually broader than the fore wings, and are often longitudi- -Caddice-fly. na jj y f o j ded j n re p Ose . All have 11U- merous longitudinal veins, but the cross veins are few. The name of the order is from two Greek words : tlirix, a hair ; and pteron, a wing. The order includes only a single family, the Phryganeidce. 186 TRICHOP TERA . 1 8 / Family PHRYGANEID^E (Phryg-a-ne'i-das). The Caddicc-flies or Caddice-worms. The young naturalist loves to lie face downward on the bank of a brook, and, with shaded eyes, watch the busy life that goes on there. Among the astonishing things he sees are little bundles of sticks or masses of stones moving about the bottom of a quiet pool as if they were alive ; and yet if he takes them out they seem dead enough. But when he pulls them apart he finds that each is a tube lined with silk within which a whitish larva lives. This larva, when it wishes to move, puts out the front part of its body, so that it can creep with its legs over the bottom of the stream, or climb up and down water-plants, dragging its house along after it. When molested it draws back into its tube, and is safe. Larvae of this sort are called Caddice- worms ; and the adult insects are known as Caddice-flies. There are very many species of Caddice-worms ; and each species makes a particular kind of tube. Some Caddice- worms are carpenters, building their houses of straws or sticks. These are usu- ally placed lengthwise the body (Fig. 226) ; but certain species that FlG - 22(5 - make their houses chief- ly of straws fasten the straws crosswise like the logs of a log-house (Fig. 227). These log-house builders often have the curious habit of decorating their houses by fastening snail-shells to the outside. And strangely enough they do not always take empty shells for this purpose ; we have found shells containing living snails securely fastened FlG - 22 7- to the outside of the house of a Cadclice-worm. In this case the snail was afforded comparatively rapid transportation whether it desired it or not. Fortunately the species that 1 88 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. make this style of house live in still water, and may, there- fore, be easily kept alive in aquaria. There are caddice-worm houses closely resembling in plan those just described but differing in appearance, being made of bits of moss. Sometimes the houses are built of leaves ; these may be fastened so as to form a flat case ; or are ar- ranged in three planes, so as to form a tube, a cross-section of which is a triangle. Other Caddice-worms are masons, building their houses of grains of sand or of small stones. Sometimes these houses are tubes very regular in outline, being composed only of grains of sand fastened together with silk ; but certain spe- cies of Mason Caddice-worms fasten larger stones on each side of this tube of sand (Fig. 228). Some of the species that FIG. 228. FIG. 229. build tubes of sand make spiral houses which very closely resemble in form snail-shells (Fig. 229). Whether stones or wood are used to build these houses the material is always fastened together by silk, which the larvae spin from the mouth in the same manner as clo cater- pillars. In some species the case is ifEr^*^^-^.. composed entirely of silk. Figure 230 represents the form of such a case, which FlG. 2to, r i i is common in some of our lakes. Among the simplest of the various forms of houses built by Caddice-worms are those made by certain species that live under stones in rapid streams. These consist merely of a few pebbles fastened to the lower surface of a larger stone by threads of silk. In the space between these pebbles the worm makes a more or less perfect tube of silk, within which TR1CHOP TERA . 1 89 it lives. Very little respect for the architectural skill of these builders is commanded by their rude dwellings. But if one looks a little farther, something will be found that is sure to excite admiration. The dweller within this rude re- treat is a fisherman ; and stretched between two stones near by can be seen his net. This is made of silk. It is usually funnel-shaped, opening up-stream ; and in the centre of it there is a portion composed of threads of silk extending in two directions at right angles to each other, so as to form meshes of surprising regularity. It is as if a spider had stretched a small web in the water where the current is the swiftest. These nets occur in rapids between stones, but in many places they are to be found in greater numbers along the brinks of falls. Here they are built upon the surface of the rock, in the form of semi-elliptical cups, which are kept distended by the current. Much of the coating of dirt with which these rocks are clothed in summer is due to its being caught in these nets. We have not yet observed the owners of the nets taking their prey from them ; but we cannot doubt that they are made to trap small insects or other ani- mals that are being carried down-stream ; for the larvae of ^> the sub-family to which these net-builders belong, the Hy- dropsy china? , are known to be carnivorous. It should be noted here, however, that the greater number of Caddice- worms are herbivorous. When a Caddice-worm gets ready to change to a pupa it retires into its house and builds a door to keep intruders out ; but the door always has an opening to allow the water to flow in so that the pupa can breathe. Sometimes a simple Sfratincr of silk is made over the entrance. o & On one occasion the writer had the good fortune to ob- serve a Caddice-fly leave the water and take its first flight. The specimen was one of the net-building species, Hydrop- sycJie (Hy-drop-sy'che), which I was breeding in an aquarium in my laboratory. It swam to the surface of the water repeatedly, using its long middle legs. When swimming, THE STUDY OF INSECTS. these legs were extended at right angles to the body like a pair of oars. The insect was unable to crawl up the vertical side of the aquarium, and after clinging to it for a short time it would lose its hold and sink back to the bottom. After watching it for a time I lifted it from the water by means of a stick. At this time its wings were in the form of pads, which were but little, if any, longer than the wing-pads of the pupa, as shown by the cast pupa-skin found floating on the water. The instant the creature was free from the water its wings expanded to their full size, and immediately it flew away several feet. In my efforts to catch the insect I found that it had perfect use of its wings, although they were so recently expanded. The time required for the insect to expands its wings and take its first flight was scarcely more than one second ; it was certainly less than two. As these insects normally emerge from rapidly-flowing streams which dash over rocks, it is evident that if much time were required for the wings to become fit for use, as is the case with most other insects, the wave succeeding that which swept one from the water would sweep it back again and destroy it. CHAPTER XVIII. Order LEPIDOPTERA (Lep-i-dop'te-ra). The Motlis or Millers, tJie Skippers, and the Butterflies. The members of this order have four wings ; these are membranous, and covered with overlapping scales. The mouth- parts are formed for sticking. The metamorphosis is complete. The name of this order is from two Greek words : lepis, a scale ; and pteron, a wing. It refers to the fact that the wings of these insects are covered with scales. Every lad that lives in the country knows that the wings of moths and butterflies are covered with dust, which comes off upon one's fineers when these insects are handled. This dust when o examined with a microscope is found to be composed of very minute scales of regular form ; and when a wing is looked at in the same way, the scales are seen arranged with more or less regularity upon it. The body, the legs, and other appendages are also covered with scales. The scales of Lepidoptera are modified hairs. That is, they are hairs which, instead of growing long and slender as hairs usually do, remain short, but grow very wide as com- pared with their length. Every gradation in form can be found from the ordinary hair-like form, which occurs most abundantly upon the body, to the short and broad scale, which is best seen upon the wings. There is a great difference among the insects of this order regarding the regularity of the arrangement of the scales 191 192 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. upon the wings. With some of the lower moths the scales are scattered irregularly over the wings. But if the wing of one of the higher butterflies be examined with a microscope, the scales will be found arranged in regular, overlapping rows; the arrangement being as reg- ular as that of the scales on a fish or of the shingles on a roof (Fig. 231). In the upper part of the figure the membrane is represented with the scales re- moved. The use of the scales on the wings is to strengthen them. We thus see that the wings of these insects are furnished with much fewer cross veins than are the wings of similar size in other orders. A secondary use of these scales is that of ornamentation ; for the beautiful colors and markings of these insects are due entirely to the scales, and are destroyed when the scales are removed. Upon the body, legs, and FIG. 231. Part of wing of butterfly, greatly magnified. FIG. 232. Maxillae of cotton-moth, and tip of same enlarged other appendages, the scales and hairs doubtless serve to protect the insect, being a sort of armor. The mouth-parts of moths and butterflies are especially adapted for sucking nectar from flowers. If the head of a butterfly be examined, there will be found a long sucking LEffDOPTERA. 1 93 tube, which when not in use is coiled on the lower side of the head between two forward-projecting appendages. This long sucking tube is composed of the two maxillae, greatly elongated, and fastened together side by side. In Figure 232 there is represented a side view of the maxillae of a moth ; and in Figure 233 a cross-section of these organs. Each FIG. 233. Cross-section of maxillae. maxilla is furnished with a groove, and the two maxillae are so fastened together that the two grooves form a tube through which the liquid food is sucked. As a rule the maxillae of insects of this order are merely fitted for extracting the nectar from flowers, but sometimes the tips of the maxillae are armed with spines, as shown in Figure 232. This enables the insect to lacerate the tissue of ripe fruits and thus set free the juice, which is then sucked up. Many moths do not eat in the adult state; with these the maxillae are wanting. The two forward projecting organs between which the maxillae are coiled when present are the labial palpi. In some moths the maxillary palpi are also developed. The larvae of Lepidoptera are known as caterpillars. They vary greatly in form and appearance ; but are usually cylindrical, and provided with from eight to sixteen legs, six thoracic legs, and from two to ten abdominal legs. The thoracic legs, which are finally developed into the legs of the adult, have a hard external skeleton ; and are jointed, taper- ing, and armed at the end with a little claw. The abdominal legs, which are shed with the last larval skin, are thick, 194 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. fleshy, without joints, elastic or contractile, and are generally surrounded at the extremity by numerous, minute hooks (Fig. 234) ; they are termed pro-legs. FIG. 234. Larva of a Hawk-moth. Most caterpillars, except the larvse of butterflies, spin cocoons (Fig. 235). In some instances, as in case of the FIG. 235. Cocoon of a moth. silkworms, a great amount of silk is used in the construction of the cocoon; in others the cocoon is composed principally LEPIDOP TERA . 1 9 5 of the hairs of the larva, which are fastened together with a fine web of silk, In the pupae of Lepidoptera the developing wings and legs are folded upon the sides and breast ; the whole being enclosed in a hard skin (Fig. 236). The members of this order as a rule feed upon plants, and are not aquatic ; some, as the Clothes-moth and the species that destroy Scale-bugs, feed FlG - 36.-Pu P a of a moth. on animal matter, and a very few feed upon plants below the surface of the water. More than six thousand species of Lepidoptera are known to occur in America, north of Mexico. These rep- resent more than sixty families. In order to give a synopsis of the Lepidoptera it is necessary to enter into rather difficult technical details. Hence this is done in that portion of this chapter designed for advanced students and printed in fine type. The prin- cipal divisions of the Lepidoptera that are appropriately discussed here are three : the moths, the skippers, and the butterflies : T/te Mot/is. These are the insects commonly called millers. Most of the species fly by night and are frequently attracted to lights. When at rest the wings are either wrapped around the body, or are spread horizontally, or are folded roof-like on the abdomen ; they are not held in a vertical position above the body. The antennae of moths are of various forms ; they are usually thread-like or feather- like ; only in rare cases are they enlarged towards the tip. The moths include all but the last six families of Lepidop- tera. The Skippers. The skippers are so called on account of their peculiar mode of flight. They fly in the daytime and dart suddenly from place to place. When at rest they 196 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. usually hold the wings erect in a vertical position like butterflies; often the fore wings are thus held while the hind wings are extended horizontally. The antennae are thread-like, and enlarged towards the tip ; but in most cases the extreme tip is pointed and recurved, forming a hook. The abdomen is usually stout, resembling that of a moth rather than that of a butterfly. This division includes two families. The Butterflies. The butterflies fly by day ; and when at rest they fold the wings together above the back in a vertical position. The antennae are thread-like with a club at the tip, which is never recurved so as to form a hook. The abdomen is slender. This division includes the last four families described in this chapter. Classification of the Lepidoptera. {For Advanced Students.} The study of the classification of the Lepidoptera is beset by a peculiar difficulty. As these insects are clothed with scales com- paratively little of their structure can be examined without injury to the specimens studied. Fortunately, however, it has been found that the various modifications of the framework of the wings afford excellent clues to the relationships of the different groups ; and these modifications can be determined in most cases without serious injury to the specimens. The structure of the antennae also can be easily studied, and in many cases affords much help in determining the zoo- logical position of an insect. The first step to be taken in the study of the classification of these insects is to become thoroughly familiar with the nomenclature of the wing veins ; this is given on pages 64 to 66. It is a good plan to take several of the larger moths and butterflies and make draw- ings showing the courses of the veins of the wings in each, carefully indicating the names or numbers of the veins on the drawings. The making of such drawings will be of much use in fixing the ar- rangement of the veins in the student's mind. It should be remem- bered that veins IV and VI are not developed in this order. As the scales on the lower surface of the wings are more closely applied to the wings than are those on the upper surface, the veins can be best seen when the wings are examined from below. The LEPIDOP TERA . 1 97 veins can be rendered more distinct for a few seconds by putting a drop of chloroform on the part of the wing to be examined ; this can be easily done by means of a camel's-hair brush. Sometimes it is necessary to remove the scales from a small part of the wing in order to determine the nature of some characteristic; this can be easily done with an artist's sabie brush. A very small brush is best for this purpose; and care should be taken not to break the wing. The above methods are all that are needed in the majority of cases where the mere determination of an insect is the object. But when a very careful study of the venation of a wing is to be made, it should be bleached and mounted on a card or on a glass slip in order that it may be studied with a compound microscope. The fol- lowing is the method of bleaching wings : 1. Remove the wings carefully so as not to break the frenulum if there be one; it is well to remove the patagium first. 2. Dip the wings in alcohol in order to wet them. 3. Immerse them for an instant in hydrochloricacid (muriatic acid). Use for this purpose dilute acid, one part acid to nine parts water. 4. Put them in Labaraque solution with the upper surface of the wings down, and leave there till the color has been removed from the scales. If a wing bleaches slowly, the process can be hastened by dipping it in the dilute acid and returning it to the Labaraque solution from time to time. This solution can be procured of most druggists. It deteriorates if left exposed in strong sunlight. If it cannot be obtained, use an aqueous solution of chloride of lime. 5. When a wing is bleached put it in alcohol and leave it there till after it floats. This is to wash off the Labaraque solution. The wing can then be mounted on a card. But it is better to mount it as described below. 6. Transfer the wing to a clearing mixture, if it is to be mounted in balsam, and leave it there five or ten minutes. This is to remove any water there may be on it. A good clearing mixture can be made by mixing two parts by weight of carbolic-acid crystals and three parts of rectified oil of turpentine. 7. Put the wing on a glass slip with considerable clearing mixture under it to avoid bubbles ; put Canada balsam on top, and cover with thin glass. In the case of small wings, it is best to transfer them from one solution to another, and to the glass slip by means of a camel's-hair brush. Wings bleached and mounted in this way make an important ad- dition to a collection. The slides should be carefully labelled ; and 198 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. ii the insect from which the wings were taken should be kept with the slide. It is our practice to remove always the wings from the right side, and then to mount the slide in the collection at the right of the insect from which the wings were taken. Uniformity in this respect adds greatly to the appearance of the collection. m ' The student should study his larger speci- mens first, leaving the smaller ones till he has acquired skill in this work. There are a few spe- cial terms used in de- scribing the wings of the Lepidoptera' which should be learned: Frennlnin. In most moths there is a strong spine or a bunch of bristles borne by the hind wing at the hume- ral angle (Fig. 237, /); this is the FIG. 237. Wings of Thyridopteryx ephemeraiformis. Its use is to insure the acting together of the two wings of one side. Except in the Microlepidoptera the frenulum of the male consists of a single strong spine; that of the female of two or more bristles. Jiigiun. In one suborder, including only a few rare moths, j there exists, instead of a fren- ulum, a lobe borne near the base of the inner margin of the fore wing (Fig. 238, j) ; this is the jugum. See sub-order Jugatse. Discal Cell. Near the cen- tre of the basal part of the wing there is a large cell lying between veins III and VII (Fig. 239, d.c.}\ this is the discal cell. In the more generalized Lepidoptera this cell is divided into two parts by the base of vein V (Fig. 239, hind wing); in such cases the Vil2 VIIl FIG. 238. Wings of Hepia Ins gracilis. LEP1DOPTERA. 199 \\ IX cell lying immediately behind vein III is cell III, and that lying immediately behind vein V is cell V. Accessory Cells. In many genera the branches of vein III of the fore wings anastomose so as to form one or more cells beyond the apex of the discal cells (Fig. 239, a.c.) ; these are the accessory cells. Discal Vein. - - The cross vein at the outer end of the discal cell is termed the discal vein (Fig. 239, d.v.). Patagia. --At the base of each fore wing there is a scale-like ap- pendage; these are the patagia. The paiagia correspond to the tegulse of the Hymenoptera and the elytra of the Cole- optera. In descriptions of Lepidoptera reference is , , . FIG. 2^0. Wines of Notolophus leucostigina. often made to the palpi. These form the double beak-like projection which extends forward from the lower surface of the head. In most Lepidoptera only the labial palpi are well developed ; but in some of the more generalized forms the maxillary palpi are also present. The presence or absence of ocelli is a character which is sometimes of considerable importance. These or- gans are situated, one on each side, above the compound eye and near its margin (Figf. 240). But it requires some FIG. 240. Head of moth, showing .,, ^ position of ocellus. skill to find them when they are present, on account of the long scales clothing the head. The Phytogeny of the Lepidoptera. Since the general acceptance of the theory of evolution that is, the theory that the higher animals and plants have been developed from lower ones it has become evi- dent that the only sure basis for classification is a knowledge of the 2OO THE STUDY OF INSECTS. history of the various races of animals and plants, or phylogeny (phy- log'e-ny), as it is termed. The scope of this book has not permitted an extended treatment of this phase of the subject. There is space for only a few hints re- garding the phylogeny of the families of a single order; but these hints will serve as an illustration of a method of study. The Lepi- doptera is chosen for this purpose, as the method has been applied to this order more fully than it has to others. It is a well-known fact that every kind of animal and plant trans- mits a general likeness with individual differences to its offspring. According to the Darwinian theory of natural selection these dif- ferences or variations may be of any kind and in any direction. And as many more animals are born or plants germinated than can live to reach maturity, owing to the tendency of each kind to increase in a geometrical ratio, each individual is subjected to a severe struggle for existence. The result of this struggle is that any individual possessing a for- tunate variation that is, one that enables it to get its living and escape its dangers more easily than its fello\vs will be more apt on this account to reach maturity and propagate its kind than will less fortunate individuals. Thus there is a thinning-out process which tends to the production of more and more specialised forms of animals and plants, i.e., forms adapted to the special conditions under which they exist. It should be remembered that the difficulties surrounding exist- ence may be met in different ways ; and that thus there may have descended from a common ancestor very different forms, each well fitted to meet the struggle for existence. See Chapter I, pp. i and 2. Just what changes have taken place in the structure of the mem- bers of any race is a difficult matter to determine, for, although many fossils have been found, the record is still very incomplete. But for- tunately something can be learned regarding this by the study of living animals. For not all members of the same family, or order, or class are equally specialized. Some retain more nearly than others the form of their remote ancestors ; and by the study of \\\a?, general- ized forms, as they are termed, we can gain some idea of the struc- ture of the animals of past ages, and of the ways in which existing animals have been modified. \Ve will state very briefly some of the conclusions that we have reached regarding the phylogeny of the families of the Lepidoptera. These conclusions are based largely on a study of the wings. It is hoped that other parts will be studied in the same way ere long. LEPIDOPTERA. 2OI In the flight of insects it is important that the two wings of each side should act together, and we find that this is secured in most orders by uniting them in some way. In the Lepidoptera two dis- tinct methods are employed ; in some it is done by means of a jugum, in others by means of a frenulum or its substitute. As neither the jugum nor the frenulum could be derived from the other, we infer that the primitive Lepidoptera possessed neither of these organs, but had wings that were quite distinct from each other. In the course of time there was developed in some of the descendants of these primi- tive forms a jugum ; while in others there was developed a frenulum. Of course in each case the development was a gradual one, extending through many generations. Thus the frenulum at first was probably merely a bunch of hairs like those elsewhere on the wings; but these became stiffer and stiffer in succeeding genera- tions. The descendants of those ancient Lepidoptera in which a jugum was developed constitute the suborder Jiigata 1 ; while the descendants of those in. which a frenulum was developed con- stitute the suborder Frenatce. We know but little of the Jugatse, as nearly all of them have perished. There remain only two small families, the Hepialidae and the Microptery- gidse. But these families are very widely separated, and hence it is safe to assume that they are the remnants of what was in past times a large fauna. In the Frenatae. however, FlG> 24I ._ WinRS of Anaa andria , there exist to-day many families, each exhibiting its own methods of specialization. In some of these families the frenulum has been preserved and perfected to a greater or less extent. But in others a curious change has taken place. It is obvious that if the two wings of each side overlap to a great extent, their acting together will be assured by this fact. And this is 2O2 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. what has taken place with the butterflies, the skippers, and certain moths. With these insects the humeral angle of the hind wing has been greatly enlarged, so that it projects far beneath the fore wing (Fig. 241). When this has taken place there is no longer any need of a frenulum, and consequently this organ is no longer preserved by natural selection. We find, therefore, that several families of Lepi- doptera that belong to the suborder Frenatae, being descendants of nil XI Vlh 'III FIG. 242. Wings of Bombyx mori. ancient frenulum-bearing moth?, no longer possess a frenulum. These are classed in the following synopsis as the frenulum-losers. It is a very interesting fact, and one that bears out the theory just stated, that in the more generalized of the frenulum-losing moths, as the Bombycidae, the frenulum has not yet entirely dis- appeared, but is preserved in a rudimentary state (Fig. 242). We place the frenulum-losers last in a serial arrangement of the fami- LEPIDOPTERA. 2O3 lies of Lepidoptera, regarding them as those that depart most widely from the primitive type. From the foregoing it will be seen that a study of the relation to each other of the fore and hind wings gives us important hints as to the probable courses development has taken in the different families. Equally suggestive hints may be derived from a study of the venation of the wings. By an extended study of fossil forms and the more generalized of living forms, the details of which study cannot be given here,* it has been determined that in the primitive Lepidoptera vein V of both fore and hind wings was well developed, and extended from the base of the wing out through the discal cell. We find that in certain families of existing moths this vein is still preserved (see p. 65), while in others it has been lost. Those families of the Frenatae in which it is best and most uniformly preserved are grouped together as the Generalised Frenata (see the following synopsis), while those in which it is lost or nearly so are considered more specialized. With the loss of the base of vein V there occurs a connection of its branches with veins III and VII, so that in the more specialized forms these branches of vein V appear to be branches of those veins (Fig. 241). A study of the extent to which this change has gone gives much aid in determining the zoological position of the different genera and families. In certain families vein V 2 tends to become united to vein III ; in others it tends to become united to vein VII. This too is an important character, of which use is made in the following synopsis. The number of anal veins is another character the study of which throws much light on the relative position of the different forms. It has been determined that the ancient Lepidoptera had at least three anal veins in both fore and hind wings. This number has been pre- served in one or both pairs of wings of the more generalized of living moths, but has been reduced to two or even to one in the more specialized families. Enough has been said, without going into further details here, to show that the way to determine the relationships of organized beings is to determine the primitive form of their organs and the changes that have been brought about in these organs by the action of natural * The data upon which these conclusions are based are given at greater length in an essay, by the senior author, entitled Evolution and Taxonomy. This essay forms a part of the Wilder Quarter-Century Book, published by the Comstock Publishing Company, Ithaca, N. Y. 204 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. selection. The classification of animals and plants should not be merely the assorting of them into convenient pigeon-holes, but a serious study of their blood-relationships. The following synopsis will serve to show what we believe to be the relations of the principal divisions of the order. Following this synopsis there is a table for use in classifying specimens. SYNOPSIS OF THE LEPIDOPTERA. {See page 207 for a table for determining specimens.} A. THE JUGATE LEPIDOPTERA. Moths in which the two wings of each side are united by SLjiigum (Fig. 238,7'), p. 214. Suborder JUGAT/E. B. The Swifts or Macrojugatce, p. 215 Family HEPIALID/E. BB. The Little-wing Jugates or Microju^ata\ p. 216. Family MiCROPTERYGlD^E. AA. THE FRENATE LEPIDOPTERA. Moths, skippers, and butterflies in which the two wings of each side are united by afrenulum (Fig. 237, /) or by its substitute, a large humeral angle of the hind wing (Fig. 241), p. 216 Suborder FRENATE. B. THE GENERALIZED FRENAIVE. Moths that are supposed to retain more nearly than any other Frenatae the form of the primi- tive Frenatse, those that were the first to appear on earth. In these generalized moths the wings approach the typical form ; the base of vein V of one or both pairs of wings is preserved throughout a considerable part at least of the discal cell ; and the anal veins are well preserved, there being two or three in the fore wing and three in the hind wing. The frenulum is usually well preserved. The Flannel-moths, p. 218 Family MEGALOPYGID/E. The Bag-worm Moths, p. 219 Family PSYCHID/E. The Carpenter-moths, p. 221 Family COSSID/E. The Slug-caterpillar Moths, p. 223 Family EuCL*EiD.rE. The Smoky-moths, p. 226 Family PVROMORPHID/E. BB. THE SPECIALIZED FRENAIVE. Moths, skippers, and butter- flies that depart more widely than do the Generalized Frenatae' from the primitive type of Lepidoptera, being more highly modi- fied for special conditions of existence. An indication of the specialized condition of these insects is the modified form of the wings. In nearly all the base of vein V has been lost and the branches of this vein joined to veins III and VII. LEPIDOPTERA. 20$ C. THE MICROFRENAT/K. Frenulum-bearing moths, which are usually of small, often minute, size. The anal area of the hind wings is not reduced, having usually three anal veins except in certain minute forms where a broad fringe has been substituted for the membrane of this area. The Pyralids, p. 228 Superfamily PYRALIDINA. The Tortricids, p. 239 Superfamily TORTRICINA. The Tineids, p. 246 Superfamily TINEINA. The Clear-winged Moths, p. 259 Family SESIID^. CC. THE SPECIALIZED MACROFRENAT^E. Specialized Frenatae which are usually of medium or large size. This division includes certain moths and all skippers and butterflies. In these insects the anal area of the hind wing is reduced, con- taining only one or two anal veins. D. The Frenulum-conservers. Specialized Macrofrenatse in which the two wings of each side are united by a frenulum. This group includes only moths. E. Moths that appear to have a three-branched cubitus, only vein V 3 being closely connected with vein VII. Vein V either retains its primitive position midway between veins III and VII or arises from the discal vein nearer to vein III than to vein VII.* The Dioptids, p. 262 Family DIOPTID^E. The Prominents, p. 263 Family NOTODONTID^E. The Measuring-worm Moths, p. 270. Superfamily GEOMETRINA. EE. Moths that appear to have a four-branched cubitus, the base of vein V 2 of one or both pairs of wings being more closely connected with vein VII than with vein III. F. Moths in which the humeral angle of the hind wings is greatly extended, but which as a rule possess the frenulum in one sex at least. The Auzatids, p. 288 Family AUZATID.E. The Hook- tip Moths, p. 289 Family DREPANID^E. FF. Moths in which the humeral angle of the hind wings is not greatly extended. G. The Noctuids and their Allies, Moths in which some of the branches of vein III of the fore wings coalesce * In many Hawk-moths vein V 2 nearly or quite retains its primitive position ; but when it has moved from this position, it is nearer to vein VII than to vein III. This family is placed, therefore, in the next division (EE) of this synopsis. 206 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. beyond the discal cell, and which do not have what appears to be a cross vein between veins II and III of the hind wings. The Cymatophorids, p. 291 .Family CYMATOPHORID/E. The Owlet-moths, p. 293 Family NOCTUID^E. The Tussock-moths, p. 308.. . .Family LVMAXTRIID^E. The Wood-nymph Moths, p. 3 13. Family AGARISTID^;. The Pericopids, p. 316 Family PERICOPID^:. The Tiger-moths, p. 317 Family ARCTIID/E. The Footman-moths, p. 324 ....Family LITHOSIID^E. The Zygaenids, p. 326 Family ZYG.ENID,*:. GG. 77/i? Window -winged Moths. Moths in which vein III of the fore wings is five-branched and in which all of these branches arise from the discal cell (Fig. 404), p. 3 2 8 Family THYRIDID^E. GGG. The Hawk-moths. Moths in which there appears to be a cross vein between veins II and III of the hind wings (Fig. 407), p. 329 Family SPHINGID/E. DD. The Frenulum-losers. Specialized Macrofrenatse, in which the frenulum has been supplanted by a greatly extended humeral area of the hind wings. In some of the more gen- eralized forms a rudimentary frenulum persists (Bornbycidae and Lacosomidae). This division includes three groups of families: the Frenulum-losing Moths, the Skippers, and the Butterflies. The grouping together of the families included in this division is merely provisional, as it is probable that the loss of the frenulum has arisen independently in several of them. E. The Fremilnm-losinx Moths. In these moths the antennae are usually pectinate ; they are never enlarged into a club at the tip. F. Moths with cubit us of the fore wings apparently three- branched. G. Moths in which veins II I 3 and IIIj coalesce to a great extent. The Saturnians. p. 339. Superfamily SATURNIINA. GG. Moths in which veins III 3 and III 4 do not coalesce beyond the discal cell. p. 357.. Family LACOSOMiDvE. FF. Moths in which cubitus of the fore wings is apparently four-branched, p. 359 Family LASIOCAMPIDJE. EE. 'The Skippers. These are day-flying Lepidoptera which resemble butterflies in usually holding their wings erect LEPIDOPTERA. 2OJ when at rest, but are distinguished by the peculiar venation of the fore wings, vein III being five-branched, and all the branches arising from the discal cell. The antennae are enlarged into a club towards the tip. p. 364. Superfamily HESPERIINA. EEE. The Bittterfttes. Day-flying Lepidoptera that hold their wings erect when at rest, that have clubbed antennae, and that differ from the Skippers in the venation of the fore wings, some of the branches of vein III coalescing beyond the discal cell Superfamily PAPILIONINA. F. Butterflies in which vein VII is apparently four- branched. The Swallow-tail Butterflies, p. 375. Family PAPILIONID/E. FF. Butterflies in which vein VII is apparently three- branched. G. Butterflies exhibiting no tendency to abortion of the fore legs. The Pierids. p. 381 Family PiERID/E. GG. Butterflies exhibiting a marked tendency to abor- tion of the fore legs. The Gossamer-winged Butterflies. p\ 388. Family LYCLENID/E. The Brush-footed Butterflies, p. 395. Family NvMPHALlD.E. TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE PRINCIPAL GROUPS OF LEPIDOPTERA. A. Wingless or with rudimentary wings. This division includes only females. All males of Lepidoptera are winged. B. The larvae case-bearers; the adult female remaining within the case to lay her eggs. p. 219 PsvCH|D^. BB. The larvae not case-bearers; the wingless adult not in a case. C. The adult remaining upon her cocoon to lay her eggs; the body of the adult clothed with fine hairs, p. 308. LY.MANTRIID.*:. CC. The adult active, laying her eggs remote from her cocoon; the body of the adult clothed with flattened scales, p. 270. GEOMETRINA. AA. Winged, fore and hind wings similar in form and venation, the radius of the hind wings being, like that of the fore wings, five- branched. (Fig. 238.) (Suborder Jiigata^ [See also AAA.] 208 THE STUDY OF I fr SECTS. B. Moths of medium or large size. p. 215 HEPIALID/E. BB. Minute moths, resembling Tineids in appearance, p. 214. MlCROPTERYGID^. AAA. Winged, fore and hind wings differing in form and venation; the radius of the hind wings being simple, although frequently apparently two- or three-branched ; this is due to the union of one or two branches of media with it (Figs. 241, 242). (Suborder Prenatal) B. Antennae of various forms, but never thread-like with a knob at the extremity* (moths in part). C. The fringe on the inner angle of the hind wings as long as, or longer than, the width of the wing; the hind wings often lanceolate, but never fissured, p. 246 TINEINA. CC. The fringe on the hind wings shorter ; the hind wings not lanceolate. D. Wings fissured. E. Each wing divided into six lobes, p. 238. . .ORNEODID/E. EE. Wings never more than four-lobed ; usual!}' the fore wings are bilobed and the hind wings trilobed. p. 237. PTEROPHORID/E. DD. Wings not fissured. E. Fore wings very narrow, the width at the middle less than one fourth the length of the wing ; a considerable part of the hind wings, and in many cases of the fore wings also, free from scales, p. 259 SESIID^E. EE. Wings scaled throughout, or if clear with the fore wings triangular in outline. F. Hind wings with three anal veins. Care must be taken not to mistake a mere fold in the wing for a vein. When there is no thickening of the membrane of the wing along a fold it is not counted as a vein. G. Subcosta and radius of the hind wings grown together for a greater or less distance between the apex of the discal cell and the apex of the wing, or in some cases separate but very closely parallel, p. 22S..PYRALIDINA. GG. Subcosta and radius of the hind wings widely sep- arate beyond the apex of the discal cell. *In some moths the antennae are enlarged towards the lip, forming a more or less distinct club ; but this club is quite different in shape from the knob at the extremity of the antennae in the skippers and the butterflies. In the moths with club-like antennae the ocelli are usually present, and the hind wings bear a frenuium. LEPID OP TERA . 20Q H. Microlepidoptera ; i.e., moths that are in most cases of small or minute size ; with those included here the palpi are well developed, often prominent when the palpi are not prominent the antennae are at least as long as the front wings ; the fringe on the anal angle of the hind wings is considerably longer than elsewhere. I. The second anal vein of the hind wings forked towards the base. p. 239 TORTRICINA. II. The second anal vein of the hind wings not forked towards the base. p. 246 TINEINA. HH. Macrolepidoptera ; i.e., moths usually of medium or large size. With those included here the palpi are small, rarely projecting beyond the head ; the antennae are of moderate length ; and the fringe on the anal angle of the hind wing is not Longer than elsewhere, or but slightly so. I. Subcosta and radius of hind wings grown together to near the end of the discal cell. (Fig. 267.) J. Small black moths, with thinly scaled wings, p. 226 PVROMORPHIDjE. JJ. Moths of medium size, and densely clothed with long woolly hairs, which are light colored or brown, p. 218 MEGALOPYGIDJE. II. Subcosta and radius of hind wings distinct or grown together for only a short distance. J. Anal veins of the fore wings anastomosing so as to appear as a branched vein (Fig. 253). p. 219 PSYCHID^:. JJ. Anal veins of fore wings not forked outwardly. K. Vein V 2 of the fore wings arising from the discal cell nearly midway between veins Vi and Vs. L. Vein V 3 of both fore and hind wings coalescing with vein VIIi for a considerable distance beyond the end of the discal cell (Fig. 309). p. 262 DIOPTID^;. LL. Veins V 3 and VII, not coalescing beyond the end of the discal cell. M. Veins III 2 and Ills coalesced at base, but separate from veins III 4 and III*. 2IO THE. STUDY OF INSECTS. which also coalesce (Fig. 438). p. 357. LACOSOMID^:. MM. Veins III,, Ills. Ill*, and III, united at base (Fig. 419). p. 340. . BOMBYCID.E. KK. Vein V 2 of the fore wings emerging from the discal cell nearer to cubitus than to radius, causing cubitus to appear four-branched. L. Fore wings with an accessory cell (Fig. 255); veins Ilia and III 3 coalesced at base, also veins lilt and III 5 ; the accessory cell is formed by the anastomosing of veins III 3 and III 4 + 5. p. 221 ............. COSSID^:. LL. Fore wings without an accessory cell ; veins III 3 and III 4 coalescing to a greater extent than any other branches of radius (Fig. 26 1 ;. p. 223 ____ ......... EUCLEID.E. FF. Hind wings with less than three anal veins. G. Fore wings with two distinct anal veins or with the anal veins partially grown together in such a way as to appear as a single branched vein. H. Anal veins of fore wings partially grown together so as to appear as a branched vein (Fig. 253). p. 219 HH. Fore wings with two distinct anal veins, p. 226. PYROMORPHID/E. GG. Fore wings with a single fully preserved anal vein. This is the second anal vein (vein IX) ; the first anal vein (vein VIII) is absent or represented merely by a fold; and the third anal vein (vein XI) is short, not reaching to the margin of the wing, or is wanting; usually when the third anal vein is present it is joined to the second anal vein, so that the latter appears to be forked towards the base. H. Frenulum present. In most cases the humeral angle of the hind wings is not largely expanded. I. The five branches of radius and the three branches of media of the fore wings present, and each one arising from the discal cell (Fig. 404). Small moths (the largest expanding only three fourths inch) resembling Hawk-moths in form, and with translucent spots on their wings, p. 328. THYRIDID^E. LEPIDOPTERA. 211 II. Some of the branches of radius or of media either wanting or grown together beyond the discal cell. J. Hind wings with subcosta and radius appar- ently distinct but connected by a strong oblique cross vein (Fig. 407). Moths of medium or large size, with spindle-shaped bodies, narrow, strong wings, and usually with the antennae prismatic in form, and more or less thickened in the middle or towards the tip, which is fre- quently recurved in the form of a hook (Hawk- moths), p. 329 SPHINGID^E. JJ. Subcosta and radius of hind wings either dis- tinct or grown together; but not appearing to be connected by a strong, oblique cross vein. K. Vein V 2 of the fore wings not more closely joined to cubitus than to radius, cubitus being apparently three-branched. L. The basal part of the subcosta of the hind wings extending from the base towards the apex of the wing in a regular curve. Moths resembling Noctuids in form ; i.e., with a large abdomen and with rather narrow, strong, and coarsely-scaled fore wings. M. Vein V 2 of the hind wings arising much nearer to cubitus than to radius ; vein Vi of the hind wings joined to radius at a considerable distance before the apex of the discal cell (Fig. 349). p. 291. CYMATOPHORID.E. MM. Vein V 2 of the hind wings either wanting or present, but when present arising either midway between radius and cubitus, or nearer to radius than to cubitus; vein Vi of the hind wings joined to radius at or beyond the apex of the discal cell (Fig 311). p. 263. NOTODONTIDJE. LL. The basal part of the subcosta of the hind wings joined to radius for a consider- able distance and then making a prominent bend towards the costal margin, as in Cicin- 212 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. nus (Fig. 438). Veins Ills and III 4 of the fore wings separate from each other, p. 357. [See also LLL.] LACOSChMlD^E. LLL. The basal part of the subcosta of the hind wings making a prominent bend into the humeral angle of the wing (Fig. 327); veins Ills and III* coalesced to near the apex of the wing. In most cases, moths with a slender abdomen, and with rather broad, delicate wings, which are finely scaled, p. 270 GEOMETRINA. KK. Vein V 2 of the fore wings more closely joined to cubitus than to radius ; cubitus be- ing in most cases apparently four-branched. L. Small moths with the apex of the fore wings sickle-shaped, p. 289. .DREPANID/E. LL. Apex of the fore wings not sickle-shaped. M. Small moths with snow-white wings, in which the subcosta of the hind wings ex- tends distinct from radius to a point be- yond the discal cell where the two are united for a greater or less distance (Fig. 344). p. 288 AUZATID/E. MM. The subcosta of the hind wings ex- tending distinct from the radius, or the two joined for a very short distance, near the base of the wing. [See also MMM.J N. Chiefly day-flying moths that are either black with large, white or yellow, rounded patches upon the wings, or have the front wings white, margined with brown, and the hind wings pale yellow. O. Cubitus of hind wings apparently four-branched (Fig. 384). p. 316. PERICOPID^;. OO. Cubitus of hind wings apparently three-branched (Fig. 379). p. 313. AGARISTID/E. NN. Not such moths as are described under N. O. Antennae pectinate. LEPIDOP TERA . 213 P. Ocelli absent, p. 308. LYMANTRIIDyE. PP. Ocelli present, p. 293 NOCTUID^E. OO. Antennae si mple. p. 293. NOCTUID^:. MMM. The subcosta of the hind wings united with the radius for a considerable distance (i.e., for one fifth or more of the length of the discal cell). N. The subcosta and radius of the hind wings united for a considerable distance, but usually separating before the apex of the discal cell. O. Ocelli present, p. 317. ..ARCTIID^E. OO. Ocelli absent, p. 324..LiTHOSllDjE. NN. The subcosta and radius of the hind wings united into a single vein (Fig. 399), or at most with their tips separate near the apex of the wing. With all the moths included under this head and under the preceding N, vein Vi of the hind wings is present and is joined to radius at or near the apex of the discal cell ; care should be taken not to mistake this vein Vi for radius, p. 326 ZYG^NID^;. HH. Frenulum absent; the humeral angle of the hind wings largely expanded and serving as a substitute for a frenulum. I. Cubitus of both wings apparently four-branched, due to the fact that both the second and third branches of media (V 2 and V 3 ) are joined to it. J. Small moths, with slender bodies, and with the apex of the fore wings sickle-shaped ; humeral veins absent, p. 289 DREPANID^:. JJ. Moths of various sizes, but with robust bodies, and with the apex of the fore wings not sickle- shaped ; hind wings with humeral veins, p. 359 LASIOCAMPID^E. II. Cubitus of both fore and hind wings apparently three-branched, due to the fact that only the third branch of media (V 3 ) is more closely joined to it than to radius. (The moths included in this 214 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. section of this table are robust, with strong wings, and are of medium or large size. In some of the Geometrina (p. 270), which also have a three- branched cubitus, the frenulum is inconspicuous or even in 'rare cases (Dyspteris} wanting ; these moths can be distinguished from those included here by their smaller size, more slender body, and weaker wings), p. 339 SATURNIINA. BB. Antennae thread-like with a knob at the extremity. C. With the radius of the fore wings five-branched, and with all of the branches arising from the discal cell (Fig. 445) ; club of antennae usually terminated by a recurved hook. The Skip- pers, p. 364 HESPERIINA. CC. With some of the branches of the radius of the fore wings coalesced beyond the apex of the discal cell (Fig. 455) ; club of antennae not terminated by a recurved hook. TJie Butterflies. p. 373 PAPILIONINA. Suborder JUGATVE (Ju-ga'tae). Tlic Jugate (Ju'gate) Lepidoptcra. The American representatives of this suborder are rare moths, which the student beginning the study of insects is not likely to meet. They can be easily recognized by the peculiar structure of the hind wings, which resemble the fore wings in form and in venation (Fig. 238). In all other Lepidoptera, the two 111,5 pairs of wings differ in form, and the hind wings are furnished with fewer veins than are the fore wings. Vlb FIG. 243. Wings of Hepialits gracilis. The most important characteristic of the sub- order, and the one to which its name refers, is the war in which the two wings of each side are fastened together. There projects backward from the inner margin of the fore LEPIDOPTERA. 215 wing near its base a small lobe (Fig. 243,7'), which extends under the costal margin of the hind wing; while the greater part of the inner margin of the fore wing overlaps the hind wing. This arrangement assures the acting together of the two wings. This projecting lobe is named \\\zjuguin or yoke ; and the moths possessing this organ are termed the Jugatae or the Jugate Lepicloptera. This suborder includes only two families; one represented by minute moths, the other by moths of medium or large size. Family HEPIALID^E (He-pi-al'i-dae). The Sivifts. The members of this family are of medium or large size. Figure 244 represents one of the larger species. Our best FIG. 244. Hepialus argenteontaculatus. known forms are brown or ashy gray in color, with the wings marked with silvery white spots. It is said that these moths fly near the earth, and only in the evening after sunset, hiding under some low plant, or clinging to the stalk of an herb during the day. Some of them fly with extreme rapidity, with an irregular mazy flight, and have, therefore, been named Swifts by collectors. They are attracted to lights. Figure 238 represents the venation of the wings of Hepialus (He-pi'a-lus). 2l6 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The larvae are nearly naked, and grub-like in appearance, although furnished with sixteen legs. They feed upon wood, and are found at the roots or within the stems of plants. They transform either in their burrows, or, in the case of those that feed outside of roots, within loose cocoons. The pupae have transverse rows of teeth on the abdominal seg- ments ; these aid them in emerging from their burrows. The best known American species bores in the stems of the speckled or hoary alder (A Inns incand). Family MICROPTERYGID^E (Mi-crop-te-ryg'i-dae). The Little-winged Jugates {Ju 1 gates). These are very minute moths, which resemble Tineids in size and appearance. The largest species known to the writer expands but little more than half an inch. Figure 245 represents the venation of the wings. Only a single genus, ur. ur 2 III, nr, VIII VII 2 VII r V 3 FIG. 245. \Vinys of Micropteryx. Mieroptcryx (Mi-crop 'te-ryx), occurs in this country. The larva.- are leaf-miners. Suborder FRENATVE (Fre-na'tae). The Frenetic \ Frc ' natc] Lepidoptera. To the Frenatse belong nearly all of our moths, and all skipper- and butterflies. With most moths of this suborder LEPIDOP TERA . 2 I 7 there exists near the base of the costal margin of the hind wings a strong bristle or bunch of bristles named the frcnn- lnm, or little bridle (Fig. 237,7). As the frenulum projects forward under the fore wing it tends to depress the hind wing when the fore wing is depressed, thus insuring the act- ino- together of the two pairs of wings. Usually the frenulum consists of two or more bristles in females and of a single stronger bristle in males. The difference is due to the fact that in males the bunch of bristles have grown together into a single strong bristle. There is also another sexual differ- ence. In the males the tip of the frenulum fits into a mem- branous hook borne on the lower surface of the fore wing, thus firmly tying together the two wings (Fig. 237, f.Ji). This frenulum hook is rarely found in females. In certain moths there is, besides the frenulum hook, a tuft of hairs projecting forwards from just behind the cubitus of the fore wing near its base, which tends also to keep the frenulum in place. With some moths and with all skippers and all butterflies the base of the costal portion of the hind wings, the humeral angle as it is termed, is largely developed, so that it projects far under the fore wing (Fig. 241). This overlapping of the two wings at the base to so great an extent insures their act- ing together without the aid of the frenulum ; and, conse- quently, there being no use for a frenulum, this organ has disappeared. In other words, the frenulum has been super- seded by the large development of the humeral angle. But as we believe that these moths, skippers, and butterflies have descended from forms which had a frenulum, we class them with the moths that still possess this organ under the sub- order Frenatse. A more easily observed character which serves to distin- guish members of this suborder is a striking difference in the venation of the two pairs of wings, the hind wings hav- ing fewer veins than the fore wings. 218 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. Family MEGALOPYGID^E (Me-gal-o-pyg'i-dae). The Flannel-moths. Sometimes there is attracted to our evening lamp a whitish moth, whose wings, being densely clothed with long curly hairs, resemble bits of flannel ; this is the Crinkled Flannel-moth, Megalopyge cris- pata (Me-gal-o-py'ge cris-pa'ta). It is cream-colored, with the fore wings marked with wavy lines of crinkled black and brownish hairs. The male is represented by Fig- ure 246 ; the female is larger, FIG. 2 4 e. Me S aiop ys e crispat*. expanding one and three fifths inches. In the female the antennas are very narrowly pecti- nate. The larva is said to feed on oak, elm, apple, and rasp- berry. In the Southern States there occur three other species of this family. These moths are easily distin- guished by the structure of their wings (Fig. 247). There are three anal veins in both fore and hind wings ; but in the fore wings the second and third anal veins (veins IX and XI) are partially grown together. The basal part of vein V is more or less distinctly preserved, and divides the discal cell into two nearly equal parts. Veins II and III of the hind wings are grown to- gether nearly to the end of the discal cell. VIIi XI Vlh IX VIII FIG. 247. Wings of Megalopyge crispata. LEPIDOPTERA. 219 The larvae of the Flannel-moths are remarkable for the possession of ten pairs of legs, three thoracic and seven abdomi- fe jpffi**^ nal. All other known lepidopter- ous larvae, except perhaps those of Micropteryx, have lost some of the abdominal legs. The cocoons of these insects are also remark- FIG. 24 8.-Cocoon of able, being furnished with a trap-door (Fig. 248). Family PSYCHID^E (Psy'chi-dae). The Bag-ivonn Mot /is. The Bag-worms are those caterpillars that have the curi- ous habit of building each for itself a silken sac covered with little twigs within which it lives (Figs. 249 and 250). When the caterpillar wishes to move from one place to another it pushes forth the front end of its body and creeps along, carrying its house with it. It is said that the species that inhabit Ceylon are be- lieved by the natives to be composed of individuals who in a previous incarnation were human beings and stole kindling-wood, and who now atone for the theft by repeat- ing the act as an insect. W'hen a Bag-worm is fully grown, it fastens its sac to a twig and changes to a o o pupa within it. And here the females remain until death, leaving their eggs within their sacs. These females are grub- like creatures without wings. But the male pupa works his way out from the lower end of his sac and changes to a winged moth. Figure 250 rep- resents the sac of a male with the empty pupa-skin projecting FIG. 249. Bag- of Oiketicus abbotii. rat a. FIG. 251. Psyche- confederate. 22O THE STUDY OF INSECTS. II III, from the lower end, and Figure 251 the fully developed^ male. These figures are of one of our smaller species, which belong to the genus Psyche (Psy'che). Abbot's Bag-worm, Oiketicus abbotii (Oi-ket'i-cus ab- bot'i-i). This species occurs in the more southern part of our country. The larva makes a bag with sticks attached to it crosswise (Fig. 249). The Evergreen Bag-worm, Thyridopteryx ephemerafor- inis (Thyr-i-dop'te-ryx e-phem-e-rae-for'- mis). This is our best known species, and on this account has been commonly called The Bag-worm. But as it is desir- able to have different names for the dif- ferent species, we call this one the Ever- green Bag-worm ; for although it feeds on many different trees, it prefers red cedar and arbor vitae. The bag of this species is about the same size as that of Abbot's Bag-worm; but it dif- fers in being covered , with bits of leaves of cedar or arbor vitas, or with twigs attached lengthwise. The structure of the wings of the Psy- chidae is very char- acteristic (Fig. 253). Both the fore and the hind wings may either tWO Or ^ r ' G- 2 ^' Wings of Thyridopteryx epheitrc?formis. three anal veins ; but the anal veins of the fore wings are grown together so as to ap- 111 pear as a single much-branched vein. The base of vein V is preserved and is forked LEPIDOPTEKA. 221 within the discal cell. In the hind wings, veins I and II and veins II and III are grown together in an unusual way. In Figure 254 these veins are represented slightly separated in order to show their relation to each other. Family COSSID/E (Cos'si-dae). The Carpenter-moths. This family includes moths with spindle-shaped bodies, and narrow, strong wings, some of the species resembling Hawk-moths quite closely in this respect. The larvae are wood-borers, living in the solid wood of the trunks of trees. They are often very injurious to forest or shade trees, and one recently imported species is very injurious to pear trees. The wood-boring habits of the larvae suggest the popular name Carpenter-moths for the insects' of this family. These moths fly by night, and lay their eggs on the bark 111 ' III; XI IX VII FIG. 255. Wings of Prionoxytus robiniiz , _/, frenulum, enlarged. of trees, or within tunnels in trees from which adult Car- penter-moths have emerged. The caterpillars are nearly naked, and, although furnished with pro-legs as well as true legs, are grub-like in form. The pupa state is passed within 222 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. the burrow made by the larva. When ready to change to an adult, the pupa works its way partially out from its bur- row. This is accomplished by means of backward-project- ing, saw-like teeth, there being one or two rows of these on each abdominal segment. After the moths have emerged the empty pupa-skins can be found projecting from the deserted burrows. The Carpenter-moths are of medium or large size. Our more common species are of a pepper-and-salt color, due to strongly contrasting dark and light scales. The antennae are usually pectinate in both sexes, but in some species those of the female are simple; the ocelli are wanting; and the mouth-parts are obsolete. The structure of the wings is shown in Figure 255 There are two anal veins in the fore wing, and three in the hind wings. The base of vein V is preserved, and is forked within the discal cell. In the fore wings, the branches of vein III anastomose so as to form an accessory cell. The frenulum is rudimentary in most of our genera (Fig. 255), but is strongly developed in others. Our most common species is the Locust-tree Carpenter- FIG. z'-fi.Prionoxystus robinice. moth, Prionoxystus robinice (Pri-on-ox-ys'tus ro-bin'i-ae). Figure 256 represents the female natural size. The male is but little more than half as large as the female. It is much LEPIDOPTERA. 223 darker than the female, from which it differs also in having a large yellow spot, which nearly covers the outer half of the hind wings. This species flies in June and July. As sug- gested by its name, it infests locust ; but its larva also bores in the trunks of oak, poplar, willow, and other trees. It is supposed that the species requires three years to com- plete its transformations. The Leopard-moth, Zeuzera pyrina (Zeu-ze'ra py-ri'na) is a large European species which has become common in the vicinity of New York City, and will doubtless spread to other parts of the country. It is white, spotted with numer- ous small black spots. Its larva is very injurious, especially to maple. It infests other shade trees, and also apple and pear. Family EUCLEID^E (Eu-cle'i-dse). The Slug-caterpillar Mot Its. One often finds on the leaves of shrubs or trees elliptical or oval larvae that resemble slugs in the form of the body and in their gliding motion. As these are larvae of moths they have been termed Slug-caterpillars ; but they present very little similarity in form to other caterpillars. The re- semblance to slugs is greatly increased by the fact that the FIG. 257. Larva of Ettlimacodes scapha. FIG. 258. Euclea. delphinii, larva. FIG. 259. lower surface of the body is closely applied to the object upon which the larva is creeping, the pro-legs being replaced by mere swellings on the abdominal segments. Some species are naked (Fig. 257) ; but many of them are armed 224 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. 4 with branching spines (Fig. 258). The larvae when full grown spin very dense cocoons of brown silk ; these are egg-shaped or nearly spherical (Fig. 259), and are usually spun between leaves. The moths are of medium or small size ; they vary greatly in appearance, and many of them are very prettily colored. Considerable variation exists in the venation of the wings in this family (Figs. 260, 261). The base of vein V may be preserved or wanting. In some species it is forked within the discal cell, in others not. There is also considerable variation in the coalescence of the branches of radius, but V, v. VII, III VIII Vlh FIG. 260. Wings of Adoneta spinuloides. greater co- ex- other veins III 3 and alesce to a tent than any branches of this vein, and there is no accessory cell. The Skiff Caterpillar, Eulimacodcs scapJia (Eu-lim-a-co'des sca'pha). This remarkable larva (Fig. 257) is not uncommon on oak and other forest trees. It is pale apple-green, with a chestnut-brown patch on its back. The moth (Fig. 262) is light cinnamon-brown, with a tan-brown triangular spot on each fore wing. The Spiny Oak-slug, Enclea dclpJiinii (Eu'cle-a del- phin'i-i). This larva (Fig. 258) is one of the most common of our slug-caterpillars. It feeds on the leaves of oak, pear, willow, and other trees. The moth is cinnamon- brown, with a variable number of bright green spots on the fore wings (Fig. 263). LEPIDOPTERA. 225 The Saddle-back Caterpillar, Empretia stimulea (Em- pre'ti-a sti-mu'le-a). This larva can be recognized by Fig- ure 264. Its most characteristic feature is a large green Vlh VII, IX VIII FIG. 261. Wings of Packardia. geminata. patch on the back, resembling a saddle-cloth, while the saddle is represented by an oval purplish-brown spot. The moth is dark, velvety, reddish brown, with two golden clots FIG. 262. Eulimacodes scapha. FIG. 263. Euclea delphinii. FIG. 264. stimulea, larva. near the apex of the fore wings. The larva feeds on oak and other forest trees. The prick of its spines is said to be venomous. 226 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. II in, in, in 3+4 Family PYROMORPHID^; (Pyr-o-mor'phi-dae). The Smoky-moths. There are but few insects in our country pertaining to ^ j this family. These are small moths, that are fej|^ chiefly of a smoky black color ; some are marked with brighter colors. ^ l< thu?*fahaiul'. A tiny representative of the family which seems to be not uncommon in the East is Acoloithus fal- sanus (Ac-o-loi'thus fal-sa'ri-us). This moth (Fig. 265) expands two thirds of an inch. It is black, with the pro- thorax of an orange color. The venation of its wings (Fig. 266) is peculiar in that subcosta and radius of the hind wings coalesce for only a short distance beyond the mid- dle of the discal cell, and a stump of radius pro- jects towards the base of the wing, from the point of union of the two veins. The larva feeds in early summer on the leaves of grape and of the Virginia creeper. It is said that the pupa state lasts fourteen days and is passed within a parchment-like cocoon. The adult frequents flowers in the daytime. The typical genus of the family is represented in the At- lantic and Western States by Pyronwrpha dimidiata (Pyr-o- mor'pha di-mid-i-a'ta). The entire insect is smoky black, except the basal half of the fore wings in front of vein IX, and the basal half of the costa of the hind wings, which are yellow. The wings are thinly scaled, and expand a little more than one inch. Figure 267 represents the venation of the wings. V 2 v, XI VII, IX VIII FIG. 266. Wings of Acoloithus faharius. LEP1DOPTERA. 227 II '". In Texas and Arizona there occur several species of Triprocris (Trip'ro-cris). The venation of one of them is shown in Figure 268. It is remarkable in that none of the branches of radius of the fore wings coalesce beyond the dis- cal cell. The genus Harrisina (Har-ris'i-na) seems to be closely allied to the preceding and is placed in this family provision- ally. It differs, how- ever, from the typical form of the family in that the anal area of VII VII, Hit n x , - ix FIG. 267. Wings of Pyromorpha dimidiata. the hind wings is greatly reduced, there being only two, short, strongly curved anal veins. As in the other members in, rn of the family there are two, well-developed anal | rn 5 veins preserved in the fore wings. In the East the most common species is Har- risina americana (H. a-mer-i-ca'na) (Fig. 269). XI FIG. 268. Wings of Triprocris mcirteni. FIG. 269. Harrisina americana. The wings are long and narrow; the abdomen is long and widened towards the caudal end. It is greenish black in color, with the prothorax reddish orange. The larva feeds 228 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. on the leaves of grape and of the Virginia creeper. An entire brood of these larvae will feed side by side on a single leaf while young. Harrisina tcxana (H. tex-a'na) occurs in the Southwest. It closely resembles the preceding; but is bluish black with a reddish orange prothorax. Harrisina coracina (H. cor-a-ci'na) also occurs in the Southwest. This species is entirely black. Superfamily PYRALIDINA (Pyr-a-li-di'na). The Pyralids (Pyr'a-lids). This superfamily includes moths of medium or small size ; but so large a proportion of the species are small that the superfamily is commonly classed with the two following as Microlepidoptera. The members of the different families included in this superfamily differ so greatly in appearance that it is not possible to give a gen- nr era l description that will serve to distinguish it. It is necessary to study structural char- acters to find evidences of a common bond, and here as in other groups we find the structure of the wings most useful for this purpose. As a rule there are FIG. 270. Wings of Nomophila noctiiella. thl'Ce anal VClllS ill the hind wings and two in the fore wings. In this respect this superfamily agrees with the preceding families and with the two following superfamilies. But in most cases the Pyralids can be recognized bv the fact that the subcosta and radius of o the hind wings are separate along the discal cell, but grown '/til LEPIDOPTERA. 229 XI VIII FIG. 271. Wings of Tlascala reductelia. together for a short distance beyond the cell, after which they are again separate (Fig. 270). In some gen- era these two veins do not actually coalesce, but extend very near to- gether for a short dis- tance (Fig. 271). The two types, however, are essentially the same. This superfamily in- cludes seven families, which can be separated by the table given below. The Plume -moths are placed last in the series, as we believe that they depart more widely from the primitive type than do any of the other families. A. Wings not fissured. B. Hind wings without a fringe of hairs on the basal part of vein VII. Care must be taken not to mistake scattered hairs on the anal area of the wing for such a fringe. C. Fore wings with veins III 4 and III 5 separate, vein III 6 arising from the discal cell (Fig. 272). p. 230 PYRAUSTID^E. CC. Fore wings with veins III 4 and III 5 united at base (Fig. 277). p. 232 PYRALIDID.E. BB. Hind wings with a fringe of long hairs on the basal part of vein VII. C. Radius of fore wings five-branched. D. Maxillary palpi more or less developed, but not triangular as in the next family, p. 233 GALLERIID^E. DD. Labial palpi long, straight, projecting forward ; maxillary palpi well developed, strongly dilated at tip with scales, ap- pearing triangular when viewed from the side. p. 234. CRAMBID/E. CC. Radius of fore wings four-branched, veins Ills and III* coalescing to edge of wing (Fig. 281). p. 235 PHYCITID.E. 230 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. AA. Wings fissured. B. Wings with less than five fissures; usually the fore wings have one fissure and the hind wings two. p. 237. . . . PTEROPHORID^E. BB. Each wing split into six parts, p. 238 ORNEODID/E. Family PYRAUSTID^ (Py-raus'ti-dae). Tlic Pyraustids (Py-raus t ids}. The members of this family differ from other Pyralids by the following combination of characters. There is no fringe of long hairs on the basal part of vein VII of the hind wings, and vein III 6 of the fore wings arises from the discal cell dis- tinct from vein III 4 (Fig. 272). This family in- cludes many small moths; but it contains also the majority of the larger species of Pyra- lids. Some of the species are very striking in ap- pearance. The Grape VII, VII, VIII FIG. 272. Wings of Nontophila folder, Desmia fnncralis (Des'mi-a fu-ne-ra'lis) is a common species, the larva of which feeds on the leaves of grape. The larva folds the leaf by fastening two portions together by silken threads. When full grown, it changes to a pupa within the folded leaf. The moth is black with shining white spots. The male (Fig. 273) differs from the fe- male in having a knot-like enlargement near the middle of each antenna. There is some variation in the size and shape of the white spots on the wings. In some specimens the white spot of the hind wing is sepa- rated into two or three spots. FIG. 273 Desmia Junt'ralis. LEPIDOPTERA. 231 The Bass-wood Leaf-roller, Pantographa limata (Pan- tog'ra-pha li-ma'ta). Our bass-wood trees often present a strange ap- pearance from the fact that nearly every leaf is cut more than half w a y across the middle, and the end rolled into a tube (Fig. 274). Within this tube there lives a bright green larva, with the head and thoracic shield black. This larva resembles cer- FIG. 27 4.-Nest of.larva of Pantograplta FlG. 275. Pantographa limata. tain Tortricid larvae, both in ap- pearance and habits ; but a study of the adult shows it to be a Py- ra [{^ J^g mot h expan d s about one and one half inches ; it is straw-colored, with many elaborate markings of olive with a purplish iridescence (Fig. 275). There is one brood a year; the winter is passed in the larval state. The Melon-worm, Margaronia hyalinata (Mar-ga-ro'ni-a hy-a-li-na'ta). This beautiful moth (Fig. 276) is often a serious pest in our southern states, where the larva is very 232 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. destructive to melons and other allied plants, destroying both the foliage and the fruit. The moth is a superb FIG. 276. ittiiygaronia hyalinata, larvae, cocoon, and adults. (From the Author's Report for 1879.) creature, with glistening white wings bordered with black, and with a spreading brush of long scales at the end of the abdomen. Family PYRALIDID.E (Pyr-a-lid'i-dae). The Typical Pyralids (Pyr 1 a-lids). The moths of this family are distinguished from other Pyr- alids, except the next family, by the absence of a fringe of hairs on the basal part of vein VII of the hind wings; and they are distinguished from that family by the fact that veins III 4 and III 6 of the fore wings are united at base (Fig. 277). It is one of the smaller of the families of Pyralids ; fifty-four species are now enumerated in our lists. LEPIDOPTERA. 233 The Meal-moth, Pyralis farinalis (Pyr'a-lis far-i-na'lis) is a common species. The larva feeds on meal, flour, and old clover-hay. The moth is commonly found near the food of the larva, but is often seen on the ceilings of rooms sitting with its tail curved over its back. It expands about an inch ; the fore wings are light brown, crossed by two curved white lines, and with a dark chocolate-brown spot on the base and tip of each. The Clover-hay Worm, Pyralis costalis (Pyr'a-iis cos-ta'- lis). The larva of this species sometimes abounds in old stacks of clover-hay, and especially near the bottom of such stacks. As the infested hay be- comes covered with a silken web spun by the larva, and by its black gunpowder-like excre- ment, much more is spoiled than is eaten by the insect. The moth expands about four fifths of an inch. It is of a beautiful lilac color, with golden bands and fringes (Fig. 278). Family GALLERIID.E (Gal-le-ri'i-dae). The Bce-motJi Family. This is a small family, of which only seven species have been found in our fauna. The best known of these is the Bee-moth. Gallcria uiellonella (Gal-le'ri-a mel-lo-nel'la). The VIII FIG. 277. Wings of Pyralis farinalis. FIG. 2 7 s. 234 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. FIG. mello- nella larva of this species is a well-known pest in apiaries. It feeds upon wax ; and makes silk-lined galleries in the honey- comb, thus destroying it. When full grown the larva is about an inch in length. It lies hidden in its gallery dur- ing the day, and feeds only at night, when the tired-out bees are sleeping the sleep of the just. When ready to pupate the caterpillar spins a tough cocoon against the side of the hive. The moth has purplish-brown front wings, and brown or faded yellow hind wings. The fore wings of the male are deeply notched at the end, while those of the female (Fig. 279) are but slightly so. The female moth creeps into the hive at night to lay her eggs. This pest is found most often in weak colonies of bees, which it frequently destroys. The best preventive of its injuries is to keep the colonies of bees strong. Of course the moths and larvae should be destroyed whenever found. But the moths are slippery like other expert thieves, and run so rapidly when disturbed that it is very difficult to catch them. Family CRAMBID.E (Cram'bi-dae). The Close-wings. Although this is not a large family, there being only seventy-five species known in our fauna, the members of it are more often seen than any other Pyralids. The larvae of most of the species feed on grass; and the adults fly up before us whenever we walk through meadows or pastures. When at rest, the moths wrap their wings closely about the body; this has suggested the name Close-wings for the Fi< _ zSo _ Cram . insects of this family. When one of these moths alights on a stalk of grass it quickly places its body LEPIDOPTERA. 235 parallel with the stalk, which renders it less conspicuous (Fig. 280). Many of the species are silvery white or are marked with stripes of that color. More than fifty of our species belong to the genus Crain- bns (Cram'bus). The moths of this genus are often seen; but the larvae usually escape observation. They occur chiefly near the surface of the ground, where they live in tubular nests constructed of bits of earth or vegetable matter. Family PHYClTIDyE (Phy-cit'i-dae). The PJiycitids (Phyc'i-tids). Our most common members of this family are small moths with rather narrow but long fore wings, which are banded or mottled with various shades of gray or brown. The family is, however, a large one and other types of col- oration occur. The dis- tinctive characteristics are those given in the table above. Figure 281 represents the venation of the wings. . The larvae of the dif- erent species vary greatly in habits. Some live in flowers, some fold or roll leaves within which they FlG ' 28l - w '^ s of Tlascal live and feed ; some are borers ; others feed upon dried fruits, or flour and meal ; and one, at least, is preda- ceous, feeding on coccids. Usually the larva lives in a silken tube or case, lying concealed by day and feeding by night. VIII 236 THE STUDY OF INSECTS, The case made by certain of the leaf-eating species is very characteristic in form (Fig. 282), being strongly taper- ing and much curved ; in this instance the case is composed largely of the excrement of the larva. The Indian-meal Moth, Plodia interpnnc- tella (Plo'di-a in-ter-punc-tel'la) is the best known of the species that infest stored provisions. The larva is the small whitish worm, with a brownish -yellow head, that spins thin silken tubes through meal or among yeast-cakes, or in bags or boxes of dried fruits. The moth expands about five eighths of an inch. The basal two fifths of the fore wing is dull white or cream-colored; the outer part reddish brown, with irregular bands of blackish scales. The Mediterranean Flour -moth, EpJicstia kiihniclla (E-phes'ti-a kuhn-i-el'la), is an even more serious pest than the preceding species, which it resembles in habits. It has become very troublesome in recent years in flouring-mills. The moth expands about one inch, and is grayish in color. Although it is called the Mediterranean Flour-moth, its source is not definitely known. Nor do we know of any easy way of ridding an infested mill of it. Carbon bisul- phide is perhaps the most available insecticide in this case. Zimmermann's Pine-pest, Pinipcstis ziuiiiicrinaiini (Pin-i- pes'tis zim-mer-man'ni), is a common species, the larva of which is a borer. It infests the trunks of pine, causing large masses of gum to exude. The moths appear in mid- summer. The Coccid-eating Pyralid, L&tilia coccidivora (Lse-til'i-a coc-ci-div'o-ra), differs from the other members of this family in being predaceous. It feeds on the eggs and young of various scale-insects (Pulvinaria, Dactylopius, and Lccaninni). Figure 283 represents the different stages of this insect enlarged, and the moths natural size resting on LEPIDOPTEKA. 237 egg-sacs of Pulvinaria. Like other members of this family the larva spins a silken tube, within which it lives. On a FIG. z^.Latilia coccidiTora. : a, egg ; b, larva ; c, pupa ; d, adult ; e, e, moths natural size resting on egg-sacs of Pulvinaria. thickly-infested branch these tubes may be found extending from the remains of one coccid to another. Family Pterophoridae (Pter-o-phor'i-dae). The Plume-moths. The Plume -moths are so called on account of the remarkable form of the wings, which are split by longitu- 2 3 8 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. dinal fissures into more or less plume-like divisions. In most species the fore wing is separated into two parts, by a fissure extending about one half the length of the wing; while the hind wing is divided into three parts by fissures extending farther towards the base of the wing. Sixty species belonging to the family have been found in North America. One of our most common species is the Gartered Plume, Oxyptilns periscelidactylus (Ox-yp'ti-lus per-is-cel-i-dac'ty-lus). This is a small moth, expanding about seven tenths of an inch. It is of a yellowish brown color marked with dull whitish streaks and spots (Fig. 284). The larvae hatch early in the spring, and feed upon the newly-expanded i eaves o f grape. They fasten together several of them, usually those at the end of a shoot, with fine white silk; between the leaves thus folded the cater- pillars live either singly or two or three together. They become full grown and change to pupae early in June. The pupa is not enclosed in a cocoon, but is fastened to the lower side of a leaf by its tail by means of a few silken threads, in nearly the same way that the chrysalids of certain butterflies are suspended. The pupa state lasts about eight days. Family ORNEODID^E (Or-ne-od'i-dae). The Many-plume MotJis. These insects resemble the Plume Moths in having the wings fissured ; but here the fissuring is carried to a much greater extent than in that fam- ily, each wing being divided into six plumes (Fig. 285). As yet only a single species of this family has been found in North Amer- ica. This is Orncodcs hexadactyla (Or- ne-o'des hex-a-dac'ty-la). FIG. 285. Orneodes hexadactyla. LEPIDOPTERA. 239 Superfamily TORTRICINA (Tor-tri-ci'na). The Tortridds (Tor 1 tri-cids}. The Tortricids are generally small moths ; but as a rule they are larger than the Tineids. They have broad front wings, which usually end squarely. The costa of the front wing curves forward strongly near the base of the wing. When at rest the broad front wings fold above the body like a roof. The moths are variegated in color, but are usually brown, gray, or golden rather than of brighter hues. As a rule the hind wings are of the color of the body and without markings. In the venation of the wings they differ from the Pyralids in having subcosta and radius of the hind wings widely separate beyond the end of the discal cell ; and from the Tineids in having the second anal vein of the hind wings forked towards the base (Fig. 286). The larvae vary greatly in habits ; but a large proportion of them are leaf- rollers (Fig. 287). It was this habit that suggested the name Tor- trix (Tor'trix) for the typical genus, from which the names of one family and of the superfamily are derived. A large proportion of the rolled leaves found upon shrubs and trees are homes of Tortricid larvae. But it should be remembered that the leaf-rolling habit is not confined to this family. in, in, XI ix VIII FIG. 286. Wings of Cacacia cerasivorana. FIG. 287. Leaf rolled by a larva, probably a Tortricid. 240 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The rolled leaves serve the Tortricid larvae not merely as homes but also as food, for they feed upon the enclosed portions. Sometimes several leaves are used by a larva, but more often only one, or in many cases merely a tip or one edge of a leaf is used. Some species cut a slit in a leaf and roll only one part of it. They also differ greatly as to the extent to which the leaves are rolled. Some species are gregarious, an entire brood making a common nest. During the latter part of the summer and in the autumn these rolled leaves can be found on almost any tree or shrub. In nearly all cases entomologists in naming Tortricids have formed the specific name with the ending -ana; so that the form of the name indicates the family to which the insect belongs. More than four hundred North American species of Tortricids are known. The superfamily includes three fam- ilies, which can be separated by the following table : A. With a fringe of long hairs on the basal part of vein VII of the hind wings, on the upper side of the wing. Do not mistake a bunch of long hairs arising from the wing back of vein VII for this fringe, p. 240 GRAPHOLITHID.E. AA. Without a fringe of long hairs on the basal part of vein VII of the hind wings. B. Vein VIL of the fore wings arising from the outer fourth of the discal cell, p. 243 CONCHYLIDS. BB. Vein VI I 2 of the fore wings arising from a point before the outer third of the discal cell, p. 244 TORTRICIDS. Family GRAPHOLITHID.-E (Graph-o-lith'i-dae). The GrapJiolitJiids (Gra-phol'i-tJiids). These moths are easily distinguished from other Tortri- cids by the presence of a fringe of long hairs on the basal part of cubitus of the hind wing. To this family belong nearly two thirds of our species of Tortricids. The follow ing are some of our more common species : LEPl D OP TERA . 241 The Codlin-moth, Carpocapsa pouwnella (Car-po-cap'sa pom-o-neria). This is the best-known and probably the most important insect enemy of the fruit-grower. The larva is the worm found feeding near the core of wormy apples. The adult (Fig. 288) is a beautiful little creature with finely mottled pale gray or rosy fore wings. There is a large brownish spot near the end of the fore wing, and upon this spot irregular, golden bands. The moth issues from the pupa state in late spring and lays FIG. 2 ss. , capsa. poinonella. its eggs singly in the maturing blossoms ot the apple just as the petals fall. As soon as the larva hatches it burrows into the apple and eats its way to the core, usually causing the fruit to fall prematurely. When full grown the larva burrows out through the side of the fruit, and undergoes its transformations within a cocoon, under the rough bark of the tree, or in some other protected place. The species is both single-brooded and double- brooded. The larvae winter in their cocoons, transforming to pupae during early spring. The method of combating this pest that is most com- monly employed now is to spray the trees with Paris-green water, just after the petals fall and before the young apples are heavy enough to droop. The falling spray lodges in the blossom end of the young apple, and the larva which hatches from an egg laid in this position gets a dose of poison with its first rneal, and dies before it can eat its way into the apple. The Bud-moth, Tmetocera ocellana (Tme-toc'e-ra oc-el- la'na). The larva of this insect is also a pest infesting apple- trees. It works in opening fruit-buds and leaf-buds, often eating into them, especially the terminal ones, so that all new growth is stopped. It also ties the young leaves at the end of a shoot together and lives within the cluster thus formed, adding other leaves when more food is needed. Sometimes o so large a proportion of the fruit-buds are destroyed as to 242 THE STUDY OF INSECl^S. seriously reduce the amount of the crop. The pupa state is passed within the cluster of tied leaves or within a tube formed by rolling up one side of a leaf, and lasts about ten days. The moth expands about three fifths of an inch ; it is of a dark ashen gray, with a large, irregular, whitish band on the fore wing. FIG. 289. Ret into, comstockiana, larva, pupa, adult, and work. (From the Author's Report for 1879.) The Pitch-pine Retinia, Rctinia comstockiana (Re-tin'i-a com-stock-i-a'na). This species (Fig. 289) illustrates well LEPIDOPTERA. 243 the habits of the boring species. The larva infests the small branches of pitch-pine. It is a yellowish-brown caterpillar, which makes a burrow along the centre of the branch. Its presence may be detected by the resin that flows out of the wound in the twig and hardens into a lump. Two of these lumps are shown in the figure, one of them splits lengthwise, and the other with a pupa-skin pro- jecting from it. The larva, pupa, and adult are also figured. The moth is represented natural size ; the darker shades are dark rust- color, and the lighter, light-gray. The insect winters as a larva ; the adult emerges in May and June, The Frustrating Retinia, Retinia frustra}ia(irus-tra.'na). This species infests the new growth of several species of pine, spinning a delicate web around the terminal bud, and FIG. 290. J?fi*z*/r^w, larva, pupa, adult, and work. (From mining both the twig and the bases the Author's Report for i8 79 .) of the leaves. The larva, pupa, and adult are represented somewhat enlarged in the figure. An infested twig is also shown (Fig. 290). Family CONCHYLID^E (Con-chyl'i-dae). The Conchy lids (Con' chy-lids). This is the smallest of the three families of Tortricids, less than fifty species occurring in our fauna. The members of it can be recognized by the characters given in the table above. Comparatively little is known about the habits of our species. The Juniper Web-worm, Conchylis rutilana (Con'chy-lis ru-ti-la'na), is an imported species which has attracted atten- 244 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. tion by its injuries to junipers, the leaves of which it fastens together with silk. In this way it makes a more or less per- fect tube within which it lives. The moth expands about one half inch, and has bright, glossy, orange, fore wines, crossed by four reddish brown bands. Family TORTRiciD^E (Tor-tric'i-dae). The Typical Tortricids ( Tor' tri-cids}. The Tortricidse agree with the preceding family in lack- ing a fringe of long hairs on the basal part of vein VII of the hind wings, but differ in that vein VI I s of the hind wings separates from the main stem before the outer third of the discal cell. More than one hundred and twenty North American species are known. Several of our best-known members of this family belong to the genus Caccecia (Ca-cce'ci-a). These may be called the Ugly-nest Tortricids, ugly dwelling being the meaning of Caccccia, and also descriptive of the nests of the larvae of these insects. Figure 291 represents the nest of the larva of Caccccia ro- sana (C. ro-sa'na), which we bred on currant ; and Figure 292, the adult of this species. This moth expands three fourths of an inch. The fore wings are olive-brown, crossed by bands of darker color ; the hind wines o are dusky. This species differs FIG. 291. Nest of Caccccia rosana. g'-f-y .'f- ' & -'.,?' FIG. 292. Cactecia rosana. from the two following in that each larva makes a nest for itself. LEPIDOPTERA. 245 The Cherry-tree Ugly-nest Tortricid, Caccccia cerasivo- rana (C. cer-a-si-vo-ra'na), lives upon the choke-cherry and sometimes upon the cul- tivated cherry. The larvae, which are yel- low, active creatures, fasten together all the leaves and twigs of a branch and feed upon them (Fig. 293), an entire brood oc- cupying a single nest. The larvae change to pupae within the nest ; and the pupae, when about to transform, work their way out and hang suspended from the outer portion of the nest, clinging to it only by hooks at the tail end of the body. Here they transform, leaving the empty pupa- skins projecting from the nest, as shown in the figure. The moths vary in size, the wing expanse of those we have bred rang- ing from four fifths of an inch to nearly one and one-fifth inches. The wings are o bright ochre-yellow ; the front pair marked with irregular brownish spots and numer- FiG. 293. Nest of Caccecia cerasivorana. FIG. 204. Caccecia cernsi- 7'ora>ia, male. FIG. 295. Caccecia cerasi- voratia, female. ous transverse bands of pale leaden blue (Fig. 294 male, 295 female). The Oak Ugly-nest Tortricid, Caccecia fervadana (C. fer- va-da'na). The nests of this species are common on our oak-trees in late summer. They are merely a wad of leaves fastened together. Each nest contains several larvae ; later the empty pupa-skins may be found clinging to the outside of the nest as in the preceding species. The Pine-leaf Tube-builder, Lophoderus politana (Lo- 246 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. phod'e-rus pol-i-ta'na). One of the most interesting of Tor- tricid nests occurs commonly on white pine. Each nest consists of from six to ten leaves drawn together so as to form a tube, and is lined within with silk. This tube serves as a protection to the larva, from which it comes out to feed upon the ends of the very leaves of which the tube is com- posed ; in this way the tube is shortened. We bred the moth from nests collected at Ithaca, New York; but we have found similar nests as far south as Florida. The moth expands one half inch. Its head, thorax, and fore wings are of a dull rust-red color, with two oblique paler bands cross- ing the fore wings, one a little before the middle, the other beyond, parallel to it. Superfamily TINEINA (Tin-e-i'na). Tlic Ti acids (Tin 1 c-ids]. The Tineids are nearly all minute moths with narrow wings, which are bordered with wide fringes. A few species are of considerable size, and have broader wings, with nar- rower fringes. The narrow-winged forms can be distinguished from all other moths by the shape of the wings and the great width of the fringes. The moths figured below (Figs. 298, 299, 300, 302) illustrate this. It should be remembered that in each of these figures the insect is represented greatly enlarged ; in most cases the size of the insect is represented by a hair- line near the figure. The wide- winged forms are most surely distinguished by the venation of the wings. In its more general features the venation of the wino;s in this FIG. 296. Wings of Depressaria heracliana. family is similar to that of the Tortricids ; it differs, how- LEPIDOPTERA. 247 ever, in that the second anal vein of the hind wings is not forked towards the base (Fig. 296). The venation of the wings of the more generalized Tineids is quite primitive in type; there are two anal veins in the fore wings, three anal veins in the hind wings, and the base of vein V is preserved throughout the length of the discal cell. But the more specialized members of the superfamily present a wide departure from this gen- eralized type. With these the base of vein V has disappeared from both pairs of wings, and the venation of the hind wings is reduced to a greater extent than is seen elsewhere in winged Lepidoptera. Correlated with this great reduction of the hind wings there has been a great expansion of the fringe of the wing. It is evident that the fringe of the wing takes the place of the wing-membrane as an organ of flight. In those Tineids that we have studied carefully the hairs composing the fringe are inserted in the lower side of the wing- membrane a short distance back from the edge of the wing; and the edge of the wing is stiffened above by strong overlapping scales. This arrangement renders the fringe rigid during the downward stroke of the wing, but admits of its depression during the upward stroke; a combination well adapted to facilitate flight. The substi- tution of wide fringes for the wing-membrane occurs in some other minute insects, as Thrips and certain minute, parasitic Hymenop- tera. To this superfamily belong the smallest of the Lepidop- tera ; many of them are so minute that the larvae live until full grown within the tissue of leaves. These tiny moths are often very beautiful, their wings being marked with scales that shine like silver or gold ; but they are so small that it is necessary to examine them with a lens to appreciate their beauty. The larvae of nearly all Tineids feed upon vegetable matter. The majority of them feed upon or within the leaves of plants, but many live within nuts, or seeds, or dried fruits ; a few feed upon dead animal matter, as woolens, furs, and feathers ; and some are predaceous, destroying scale-bugs. Entomologists have a custom of terminating the name of each species of Tineid with -ella. Thus we have Tinea 248 THE STUDY OF I A" SECTS. granella, Adela ridiugsella, Buccnlatrix pomonclla, and many hundreds of others ; until the syllable -dla always brings before us a vision of a tiny moth, with narrow wings bear- ing long delicate fringes. The Tineids are very numerous, there being nearly one thousand described American species ; and doubtless there are many undescribed as yet. The superfamily is composed of several families; but, as the study of these insects is too difficult to be carried far by the beginning student, we Avill not take the space to define these families in this work. We will merely describe the habits of a few species. At first thought the leaves of our common shrubs and trees seem quite as thin as if they had been cut out of sheets of paper. But the reader has doubtless learned in the study of Botany that the upper and the lower surfaces of a leaf are each covered with a thin skin or epidermis, and that between these two skins there is a fleshy portion called the parenchyma. But if botanists had failed to teach us this lesson, the Tineid larvae would have done so ; for many of these little creatures live until full grown between the two skins of a leaf, and derive their nourishment from the paren- chyma. As our coal-miners dig tunnels in the earth, so do these larvae eat out long passages in the substance of a leaf, without breaking through either epidermis. During the late summer and autumn there can be found on almost any shrub or tree leaves that are more or less dis- colored by white or grayish blotches or by long twisted lines that reveal the abiding-places of leaf-miners. Surely Mr. Lowell must have had these in mind when he wrote : " And there's never a leaf nor a blade too mean To be some happy creature's palace." Not only are very many kinds of plants infested by Tineid larvae, but the mines in the leaves differ greatly in form and in their position in the leaf. These differences in food-plant and in the shape and position of the mines do LEPIDOPTERA. 249 not indicate that these larvae are inconstant in their habits. In fact, the opposite is the case. Each species of Tineid infests a particular species of plant, or, at the most, several closely allied plants. And each species makes a mine of definite shape, although some species exhibit different habits in the different stages of their growth. So constant are these creatures in their habits that in most cases an expert can determine the species of Tineid that made a mine by merely examining the infested leaf. The various kinds of mines can be classed under a few distinct types. The long, narrow, and more or less winding mines are described as linear mines. Some of i ^f^ (0,pi- , these are very narrow at their beginning and grad- ually enlarge, resembling in outline a serpent ; fre- quently the larger end is terminated by a blotch- like enlargement, suggest- ing a head. Such mines are termed serpentine mines. The leaves of the wild columbine are often marked by serpentine mines (Fig. 297). Other mines that start from a narrow beginning enlarge more o o o rapidly and extend in a more or less regular curve ; these are trumpet mines. A common example of a trumpet mine is that made by the larva of TiscJieria malifoliella (Tis-che'ri-a mal-i-fol-i-el'la) in the leaves of apple. The mines of many species are mere disk-like blotches ; these are referred to as blotch mines (Fig. 298). Blotch mines differ in position ; some are immediately beneath the upper epider- mis, while others are nearer the lower surface of the leaf. This distinction exists also in most of the other types of FIG. 297. Leaf with serpentine -mines. 250 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. mines. In some of the blotch mines the epidermis of one side of the leaf is thrown into a fold by the growth of the leaf ; these are tcntiform mines. In addition to peculiarities in shape many mines are marked by characteristic lines or spots composed of the droppings of the larva. The following species will serve to illustrate the habits of these remarkable insects. The White-blotch Oak-leaf Miner, Lithocolletis hamadrya- dclla (Lith-o-col-le'tis ha-mad-ry-a-del'la). This little miner infests the leaves of many different species of oak, and some- FIG. 298. Lithocolletis hamadryadella: a, mine; , young larva; c, full-grown, flat-form larva; the Author's Report for 1879. eral respects from any of the other Tineids described here. The larva infests the leaves of apple, and when full grown it makes a small white cocoon which is attached to the lower surface of a twig. These cocoons sometimes occur in great numbers, side by side, on the twigs of an infested tree (Fig. 301). They are easily recognized by their shape being slender, and ribbed lengthwise. It is these cocoons that usually first reveal the presence of this pest in an orchard. They are very conspicuous during the winter when the leaves are off the trees. At this time each cocoon contains a pupa. The adult moth emerges in early spring. The eggs are laid on the lower surface of the leaves. Each larva when it hatches bores directly from the egg to the upper surface of the leaf, where it makes a brown serpentine 254 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. mine. When these mines are abundant in a leaf it turns yellow and dies. When the larva has made a mine from one half to three fourths of an inch long, which it does in from four to five days, it eats its way out through the upper surface. Then somewhere on the upper surface of the leaf it weaves a circular silken covering about one-twelfth inch in diam- eter. Stretched out on this network the larva, which is now about one-tenth inch long, makes a small hole in it near its edge, then, as one would turn a somersault, it puts its head into this hole and disappears beneath the silken covering, where it undergoes a change of skin. It remains in the molting cocoon usually less than twenty-four hours. After leaving this cocoon it feeds upon the leaves without making a mine ; and in a few days makes a second molting cocoon which differs from the first only in being about one- eighth inch in diameter. After leaving this it FIG 3 oi - Cocoons again feeds for a few days, and then mi- 1fMeTa atrixp m ~ grates to a twig where it makes the long ribbed cocoon within which the pupa state is passed. This very interesting life-history was first worked out by Mr. A. E. Brunn while a student in the writer's laboratory at Cornell University. When it is necessary to combat this pest the smaller twio-s bearing cocoons should be pruned as far as practicable during the winter and burned, and those cocoons that remain on the larger branches should be washed with strong kerosene emulsion. The Resplendent Shield-bearer, Aspidisca splendoriferella (As-pi-dis'ca splen-do-rif-e-rel'la). This Tineid is both a miner and a case-bearer. It feeds within apple-leaves, and at first makes a linear mine ; but later this is enlarged into a blotch mine. When full grown the larva makes an oval case LEPIDOPTERA, 255 cut from the walls of its mine and lined with silk. It then seeks a safe place in which to fasten this case and pass the winter. This is usually on the trunk or on a branch of the in- fested tree (Fig. 302). Once some of these migrating larvse dropped from a tree upon the writer's hat and carefully FIG. 302. Aspiiiisca. splendoriferella : a, leaf of apple showing work ; b, summer larva ; c, larva in case travelling ; :iculata. (G. ver-mic-u-la'ta) occurs in Colorado ; it is represented by Figure 385. G. hopf- feri (G. hopffe-ri) is found in California, in the foot-hills of the Sierra Nevadas. It has three yellow spots near the mid- dle of the fore wing, and a transverse row of from three to five spots near the outer margin ; on the hind wings there are two spots near the base and another pair between these and the apex of the wing. Family ARCTIID^E (Arc-ti'i-dae). The Tiger-moths, or Arctiids (Arc 1 ti-ids). The Arctiidae includes stout-bodied moths, with moder- ately broad wings, which in the majority of cases are con- spicuously striped or spotted, suggesting the popular name Tiger-moths ; some of the species, however, are unspotted. A large proportion of ir J~=^=~~^ the species are exceed- ingly beautiful ; this renders the family a favorite one with collec- tors. As a rule, when at rest, the wings are folded roof-like upon the body. The moths fly at night, and are at- tracted to lights. These moths differ from the following fam- ily in having ocelli ; these are often prominent, at other times they are difficult to see on account of the long hairs with which the head is FIG. 386. Wings of Halisidota tessellata. THE STUDY OF INSECTS. IT-f 711, clothed. The palpi are short, usually but little developed ; and the maxillae are present. The most important features in the venation of the wings (Figs. 386, 387) is the union of veins V 2 and V 3 of the fore wings with cubitus, making it apparently four-branched ; and the growing together of subcosta and radius of the hind wings for a considerable distance. The extent of the union of these two veins varies greatly in the different genera; but so far as we have ob- served it is always less TIT, rrr 3 m 4 than four fifths of the length of the discal cell. This character is of use in separating these insects from the Zygaenidse in which the union of these two veins is carried farther. The larvae of the Tiger-moths are clothed with dense clusters of hairs. In fact a large proportion of our com- mon hairy caterpillars FIG. 387. Wings of Pygoctenucha funerea. J are members of this family. In some species, certain of the clusters of hairs are much larger than the others, resembling in this VII, XI respect the clothing of the Tussock-moths. Most larvae of the Arctiids feed upon herbaceous plants, and many species seem to have but little choice of food-plant ; but certain common species feed upon leaves of forest- trees. About one hundred and fifty North American species have been described. The following are some of the more common representatives. Among the more beautiful of the Tiger-moths is a genus the species of which are snow-white or light yellow with the LEPIDOPTERA. 3*9 fore wings banded with dark brown. In most species the hind wings are unspot- ted and are snow- white, but in some the hind wings are yellow. These moths constitute the genus Haploa (Hap'lo-a). A species common in the . . . - , FlG. 388. Haploa contigua. Atlantic States and rep- resented by Figure 388 is Haploa contigua (H. con-tig' u-a). The insects of this genus vary greatly in their markings. The Bella-moth, Utetheisa bella (U-te-thei'sa bel'la) is a whitish moth with lemon-yellow or orange-colored fore wings, crossed by six transverse white bands, each containing a series of black dots (Fig. 389); the hind wings are pink, with a black outer margin, which is bordered within by a narrow white line. The species occurs throughout the Atlantic States. The Harlequin Milkweed Cater- pillar, Cycnia egle (Cyc'ni-a eg'le). This larva is the most common cat- erpillar found on milkweed. It is clothed with tufts of orange, black, and white ; those at each end of the body are longer than the others, FIG. 389. Utetkeisa bella. FIG. 390. Cycnia egle, larva and are arranged radiately (Fig. 390). When full grown ^20 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. the larva makes a felt-like cocoon composed largely of its hairs. The adult has mouse-gray, unspotted wings; the abdomen is yellow, with a row of black spots along the middle of the back. The Hickory Tiger-moth, Halisidota carycs (Ha-lis-i- do'ta ca'ry-ae). One of the most abundant of caterpillars in the Atlantic States and westward during the months of August and September is one clothed with dense tufts of finely barbed white hairs (Fig. 391) ; there is a ridge or crest FIG. 391. Halisidota carytz larva. of black hairs on the middle of the back of the abdominal segments, a few long white hairs projecting over the head from the thorax, and others projecting back from the last seg- ment ; there are also two pairs of pencils of black hairs, one on the first and one on the seventh abdominal segment, and a similar pair of pencils of white hairs on the eighth abdominal segment. This larva feeds on hickory, butternut, and other forest-trees. Its grayish cocoons, composed almost entirely of the hair of the larva, are often found under stones, fences, and other similar places. The fore wings of the adult (Fig. 392) are dark brown spotted with white. FIG. 392. Halisidota carytz. LEPIDOP TERA. 3 2 J The Salt-marsh Caterpillar, Estigmcne acrcea (Es-tig-me'ne a-crae'a). The popular name of this insect was given to it by Harris, and was suggested by the fact that the salt- marsh meadows about Boston were overrun and laid waste in his time by swarms of the larvae. But the name is mis- leading, as the species is widely distributed throughout the United States. The moth (Fig. 393) is white, marked with yellow and black. There are many black dots on the wings, a row of black spots on the back of the abdomen, another row FlG - &*-*"&*< on the venter, and two rows on each side. The sexes differ greatly in the ground-color of the wings; in the female, this is white throughout ; in the male, only the upper surface of the fore wings is white, the lower surface of the fore wings and the hind wings above and below being yellow. The num- ber and size of the black spots on the wings vary greatly. There are usually more submarginal spots on the hind wings than represented in our figure. The Fall Web- worm, Hyphantria cunea (Hy-phan'tri-a cu'ne-a). A very common sight in autumn in all parts of our country is large ugly webs enclosing branches of fruit or forest trees. These webs are especially common on apple and on ash. Each web is the residence of a colony of larvae which have hatched from a cluster of eggs, laid on a leaf by a snow-white moth. There is a variety of this moth in which the fore wings are thickly studded with dark brown spots. Every gradation exists between this form and those that are spotless. The species winters in the pupa state, and the moths emerge during May or June. The webs made by this insect should not be confounded with those made by the Apple-tree Tent-caterpillar. The webs of the Fall Web-worm are made in the autumn, and 322 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. are much lighter in texture, being extended over all of the leaves fed upon by the colony. The Isabella Tiger-moth, PyrrJiarctia Isabella (Pyr-rharc'- ti-a is-a-bel'la). "Hurrying along like a caterpillar in the fall" is a common saying among country people in New England, and probably had its origin in observations made upon the larva of the Isabella Tiger-moth. This is the evenly clipped, furry caterpillar, reddish brown in the middle and black at either end, which is seen so commonly in the autumn and early spring (Fig. 394). Its evident haste to get somewhere, in the autumn, is almost painful to witness. A nervous anxiety is apparent in every undulat- F,G. w.-Pyrrharctia fs,,Mla, larva. ifig movement Q f j ts body . and frequently its shining black head is raised high in the air, and moved from side to side, while it gets its bearings. Occasionally after such an observation it evidently finds it is mistaken, and turns sharply and hastens along faster than ever in another direction. So far as we can judge, its ex- citement comes from a sudden fear that winter will over- take it before it can find a cosy, protected corner in which to pass its winter sleep. In the spring it comes forth again, and after feeding for a time makes a blackish-brown cocoon composed largely of its hair. The adult is of a dull grayish tawny-yellow, with a few black dots on the wings, and fre- quently with the hinder pair tinged with orange-red. On the middle of the back of the abdomen there is a row of about six black dots, and on each side of the body a similar row of dots. The Yellow-bear, Spilosoma virginica (Spil-o-so'ma vir- gin'i-ca). The larva of this species is one of the most com- mon hairy caterpillars found feeding on herbaceous plants. It was named by Harris the Yellow-bear on account of the long yellow hairs with which the body is clothed. These hairs are uneven in length, some scattered ones being twice LEPIDOPTERA. 323 as long as the greater number of hairs. The long hairs are more numerous near the caudal end than elsewhere, but are nowhere gathered into pencils as with the Tussock-cater- pillars. This larva varies greatly in color. The body is most often of a pale yellow or straw color, with a black, more or less interrupted, longitudinal line along each side, and a more or less distinct transverse line of the same color be- tween each of the segments. Sometimes the hairs are foxy red or light brown, and the body brownish or even dark brown. The head and the ends of the feet and forelegs are yellowish, and the venter is dusky. The larva feeds on almost any plant. The cocoon is light, and is composed almost entirely of the hairs of the caterpillar. This insect passes the winter in the pupa state ; and it is probable that there are usually two or more broods each year ; but these are not well marked. The moth (Fig. 395) is snowy white, with the wings marked by a few black dots ; these vary in num- ber, but there are rarely more than three on either wing. There is a row of black spots on the back of the abdomen, and another on each side, and between these a longitudinal deep yellow stripe. A very large number of species of Tiger-moths belong to the genus Eyprepia (Ey-pre'pi-a). These are perhaps the most striking in appear- ance of all members of the family. The fore wings are velvety black marked with yellowish Or pink bands ; in some species the lighter color predominates, so that the fore wings appear to be yellow or pink, spotted i FIG. 395 Spilosotna virginica. FIG. ^.- virgo. 324 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. with black. The hind wings are red, pink, or yellow, and are margined or spotted with black. The thorax is usually marked with three black stripes, of which the lateral ones are borne by the patagia. There is also a black line or a row of black spots along the middle of the back of the ab- domen, and a similar row of spots on each side. Our most common species of this genus is Eyprcpia 1'irgo (Fig. 396). The larva of this species feeds on pigweed and other un- cultivated plants. Family LITHOSIID/E (Lith-o-si'i-dae). The Footman-moths or Lithosiids (Li-t ho' si-ids). The Lithosiidae include small moths with rather slender bodies, filiform antennae, and usually narrow front wings and broad hind wings. As a rule they are closely scaled insects of sombre colors, a fact that has won for them the title of Footman-moths; but in case of some of the species their livery is very gay. Some species fly by day, while others are attracted to lights at night. This family is closely allied to the Arctiidse ; in fact it is sometimes difficult to tell to which of these families a species belongs. Usually the Footman-moth^ can be distinguished by the absence of ocelli ; but some species possess very small ones. The palpi are small or moderately developed; the maxillae are present and quite well developed. The vena- tion of the w.ngs differs greatly in the different genera ; but in its more important features it resembles that of the Arc- tiidae. The larvae are cylindrical and covered with short, stiff hairs. The majority of the species whose transformations are known feed upon lichens. They transform in very deli- cate cocoons or have naked pupae. Among our more com- mon species are the following: The Pale Footman, Crambidia pallida (Cram-bid'i-a paT- li-da. This moth is of a uniform drab color, with the abdo- men and the inner part of hind wings paler; it expands nine LEPIDOPTERA. 325 tenths of an inch. The moths of the genus Crambidia can be recognized by the fact that veins V s and V 3 of the fore wings are both wanting, leaving cubitus only two-branched. The Two-colored Footman, Litlwsia bicolor (Li-tho'si-a bi'co-lor). This is larger than the preceding species, expand- ing from one to one and one half inches. It is slate-colored, with the palpi, the prothorax, the costa of the fore wings, and the tip of the abdomen yellow. Vein V 2 of the fore wings is wanting, leaving cubitus apparently three-branched The Striped Footman, Hypoprepia miniata (Hy-po-pre' pi-a min-i-a'ta). This beautiful moth is of a deep scarlet color, with three broad lead-colored stripes on the front wings. Two of the stripes extend the entire length of the wings; while the third is between these and extends from the end of the discal cell to the outer margin (Fig. 397). The outer half of the hind wings is also slate-colored. Vein V 2 of the fore wings is pres- ent ; but vein V 2 of the hind wings is wanting. The larva feeds upon lichens, and may be found under loose stones or on the trunks of trees. It is dusky, and thinly covered with stiff, sharp, and barbed black bristles, which grow singly from small warts. The cocoon is thin and silky. The Painted Footman, Hypoprepia fucosa (Hy-po-pre'pi-a fu-co'sa). This species is very similar to the preceding and has been confounded with it. With the Painted Footman the ground-color of the fore wings is partly yellow and partly red. The Clothed-in-white Footman, Clemensia albata (Cle- men'si-a al-ba'ta). The specific name of this insect is some- what misleading ; for although the general color of the moth is white, there are so many ashen and gray scales, and dark spots, that the general effect is gray. On the front wings the more prominent black spots are six or seven on the costa, one on the discal vein, and a row of small ones on the 326 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. outer margin. The hind wings are white, but finely dusted with gray scales. With this species vein V 2 is present in both fore and hind wings. The Banded Footman, Cisthcne unifascia (Cis-the'ne u-ni-fas'ci-a). This little beauty (Fig. 398) occurs in the Atlantic States from New York to Texas. The fore wings are lead-colored, and crossed by a yellow band, which extends also along the inner FIG. 398. Cisthene J unifascia. margin to the base of the wings. The hind wings are pink except the apex, which is lead-colored. There is much variation in the width of the yellow band. Family ZYG.EXID^E (Zy-gaen'i-dae). The Zygcznids (Zy-gcz' nids\ These moths are most easily distinguished from the allied families that are rep- resented in this coun- in, try by the structure of the hind wings. Here we find the tendency of veins II and III to coalesce carried to the great- est extreme, aiey being joined clear to the margin of the wing (Fig. 399) ; oc- <2 / casionally forms are found in which the tips of these two veins are separate for a short distance near the apex of the Wing; F'O- 399 Wings of Ctenucha virginica. and usually they are separated for a short distance near the base of the wing, as shown in the figure. In some of the more VIIj LEPIDOPTERA. 327 FIG. 400. Cosmosoma auge. specialized forms, as Cosmosoma (Fig. 400), the hind wings are greatly reduced in size, and the branches of radius and cubitus coalesce to a remarkable degree. To the first division of this family belong a small number of bluish-black or brown moths which have more or less vermilion or yellow on the head, prothorax, and patagia. These moths are of medium size, expanding from one and one fifth to two inches. The dull color of the wings is usually relieved by the bright color of the head and patagia, and by a layer of blue scales covering the thorax and abdomen ; but in some species these are wanting. The larvae feed on grasses. Some of them strongly resemble those of the Arctiidse in appearance as well as in habits, being thickly clothed with hair ; they also spin cocoons simi- lar to those of Arctiids. Our common forms represent two FIG. 401. Ctunuclia virginica. FIG. 402. Scepsis fulvicollis. genera, Ctenucha (Cte-nu'cha) and Scepsis (Scep'sis). In the East we have only a single species of each of these genera, Ctenucha virginica (C. vir-gin'i-ca), which is represented by Figure 401, and Scepsis fulvicollis (S. ful-vi-col'lis), repre- sented by Figure 402. The second division of the family includes a much larger number and a much greater variety of forms. Our most common species is LycomorpJia pJwlus (Ly-co-mor'pha pho'lus). This is black with the basal half of the fore wings and the basal third of the hind FIG. i,oT,Lyco}norpha pholus. 323 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. wings yellow (Fig. 403). A variety of this species occurs in California in which the lighter parts of the wings are pinkish instead of yellow. These moths occur in stony places, where the larvae feed on lichens growing on rocks. In the extreme southern part of our country and in the regions south of that, there occur highly specialized mem- bers of this family, in which the hind wings are greatly re- duced in size, and the veins of the hind wings coalesce to a remarkable degree. In some of these forms the discal por- tion of the wings bears but few if any scales. Cosmosoma auge (Cos-mo-so'ma au'ge)from Florida (Fig. 400) will serve as an example of these. In this species the body and legs are bright red, with the head, end of abdomen, and a dorsal band blue-black ; the veins and borders of the wings are also black. Family THYRIDID^; (Thy-rid'i-dae). The Window-winged Aloths. These little moths can be easily recognized by the presence of curious white or yellowish translucent spots upon the wings ; it is these spots that suggests the name Window- winged Moths for the family. In this family the antennae are either strictly filiform or slightly thickened in the middle ; the ocelli are wanting ; the palpi project horizontally, and are somewhat longer than the head ; and the maxillae are strongly developed. The venation of the wings differs from that of all other families of moths, in that all five branches of radius of the fore wings are preserved and arise from the discal cell (Fig. 404).* FIG. 4 o 4 .-wings of Thyrii macuiata. j similar type of venation is * In a single genus of the Pyromorphid.Te, Triprocris (p. 227, Fig. 268;, all the branches of radius arise from the discal cell. LEPIDOPTERA. 329 possessed by the Skippers (Hesperina) ; but the Window- winged Moths differ from the Skippers in having a well- developed frenulum. The early stages of our species are not known ; but the larva of a European species lives upon the leaves of Cle- matis, which it rolls like a Tortricid. This larva is said to appear like that of a Chrysomelid beetle. It descends to the surface of the ground and makes a dense silken cocoon, more or less mixed with grains of sand. The most common representative of this family in the Eastern and Middle States is the Spotted Thyris, Tliyris macitlata (Thy'ris mac-u-la'ta). This species (Fig. 405) is brownish black, sprinkled with rust- yellow dots ; the outer margin of the wings, especially of the hind wings, is deeply scalloped, FIG "_ T/i iris with the edges of the indentations white. There is on each wing a translucent white spot ; that of the hind wing is larger, kidney-shaped, and almost divided in two. This species occurs also in the West, as there are specimens from Montana in the Cornell University collection. The Mournful Thyris, Thyris lugubris (Thy'ris lu-gu'bris), is a larger species found in the Southern States. It can be recognized by Figure 406. It is brownish black, marked with yellow, FIG. tf&. Thyris and with the translucent spots yellowish. lugubris. Family SPHINGID^: (Sphin'gi-dae). TJic Hawk-inotJis or Sphinxes. Hawk-moths are easily recognized by the form of the body, wings, and antennae. The body is very stout and spin- dle-shaped ; the wings are long, narrow, and very strong ; the antennae are more or less thickened in the middle or towards the tip, which is frequently curved back in the form of a hook ; rarely the antennae are pectinated. The sucking-tube (maxillae) is usually very long, being in some instances twice 330 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. as long as the body ; but in one subfamily it is short and membranous. When not in use it is closely coiled like a watch-spring beneath the head. None of the species have ocelli. The venation of the wings (Fig. 407) is quite character- istic ; the most distinctive feature is the presence of what ni, in, ii XI VII VII FIG. 4^.7. Wings of Phlegethontiws ccleits. appears to be a cross-vein between subcosta and radius of the hind wing. This apparent cross-vein is due to the fact that veins II and III are grown together for a short distance, and then vein II separates and joins vein I. The obvious presence of vein I in the hind wings is unusual ; but it occurs in the Psychidae, in the Bombycidae, and in the Anthroceridae (a family not represented in our fauna) also. This basal part of vein I is probably preserved in other cases where it appears to be the base of vein II. Thus in Citheronia (Fig. 417) there is a rudiment of the so-called cross-vein, which has entirely disappeared in the more specialized forms of the family to LEPIDOP TERA . 331 which this genus belongs. In the Hawk-moths the frenu- lum is usually well preserved, but in a few it is wanting or rudimentary. In many genera vein 1 1 1, of the fore wings coalesces with vein III 3 toits tip, so that vein III is only four-branched. Some of the Hawk-moths are small or of medium size ; but most of them are large. They have the most powerful wings of all Lepidoptera. As a rule they fly in the twilight, and have the habit of remaining poised over a flower while extracting the nectar, holding themselves in this position by a rapid motion of the wings. This attitude and the whir of the vibrating wings gives them a strong resemblance to hum- ming-birds, hence they are sometimes called Humming-bird Moths ; but they are more often called Hawk-moths, on ac- count of their long, narrow wings and strong flight. Of all the beautifully arrayed Lepidoptera some of the Hawk-moths are the most truly elegant. There is a high-bred tailor-made air about their clear-cut wings, their closely fitted scales, and their quiet but exquisite colors. The harmony of the combined hues of olive and tan, ochre and brown, black and yellow, and grays of every conceivable shade, with touches here and there of rose color, is a perpetual joy to the artistic eye. They seldom have vivid colors except touches of yel- low or pink on the abdomen or hind wings, as if their fas- tidious taste allowed petticoats only of brilliant colors always to be worn beneath quiet-toned overdresses. The larvae of the Sphingidae feed upon leaves of various plants and trees, and are often large and quite remarkable in appearance (Fig. 408). The body is cylindrical and naked and usually has a horn behind near the end of the body on the eighth abdominal segment. Sometimes instead of the horn there is a shiny tubercle or knob. We cannot even guess the use of this horn, unless it is ornamental, for it is never provided with a sting. These caterpillars when resting rear the front of the body up in the air, curl the head down in the most majestic manner, and remain thus 332 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. rigid and motionless for hours. When in this attitude they are supposed to resemble the Egyptian Sphinx, and so the typical genus was named Sphinx and the family the Sphingidae. But we think they deserve the name independently of their habits because of the riddle they constantly propound to us as to why they wear this horn on the rear end of the body instead of on the head, where it ought to be in order to be of FIG. 408. Sfhinx c/iersis, larva. any use whatever as a horn. These caterpillars are usually of some shade of green and often are ornamented with a series of diagonal stripes along each side. Most species pass the pupa state in the ground in simple cells made in the earth ; some, however, transform on the surface of the ground in imperfect cocoons composed of leaves fastened together with silk. Nearly one hundred species of Hawk-moths occur in this country. The following are some of the more common ones. LEPIDOPTERA. 333 The Modest Sphinx, Marumba modesta (Ma-rum'ba mo-des'ta). It was, probably, the quiet olive tints in which the moth is chiefly clothed that suggested the name modesta for it, but it is one of the most beautiful of our Hawk-moths. The body and basal third of the fore wings are pale olive ; the outer third of the fore wings is a darker shade of the same color ; while the middle third is still darker (Fig. 409). FIG. 409 ]\larumba modesta. The hind wings are dull carmine-red in the middle ; there is a bluish-gray patch with a curved black streak over it near the anal angle. The larva feeds on poplar and cotton- wood. When full grown it is three inches long, of a pale green color, and coarsely granulated, the granules studded w'th fine white points, giving the skin a frosted appearance. The Twin-spotted Sphinx, Sincrinthns gcminatus (Sme- rin'thus gem-i-na'- tus). This exquis- itely colored moth J expands about two and one half inches. The thorax is gray with a velvety dark brown spot in the middle. The fore wings are gray, with a faint rosy tint in some specimens. FlG. 410. Swerinthns geminatus. 334 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. and tipped and banded with brown as shown in Figure 410. The hind wings are deep carmine at the middle, and are bordered with pale tan or gray. Near the anal angle there is a large black spot in which there is a pair of blue spots, which suggested the name geininatus. The larva feeds upon the leaves of apple, plum, elm, ash, and willow. Harris's Sphinx, Ellewa harrisii (El-le'ma har-ris'i-i). This sphinx has interested us chiefly on account of the habits and markings of its larva (Fig. 411). It feeds upon the foliage of pine, and is colored with alternating green and white longitudi- nal strips ; the dorsal stripe is green spotted with red. It has a way of hanging head downward in a pine tas- sel that conceals it entirely from the sight of all but very sharp eyes, its stripes giving a close resemblance to a bunch of pine leaves. The moth ex- pands about two inches ; it is gray with the fore wings marked by several series of small brown spots. The Pen-marked Sphinx, SpJiinx cJicrsis (Sphinx cher'sis). This moth is of an almost evenly distributed ashy- gray color. This sombre color is relieved somewhat by a black band on each side of the abdomen, marked with four or five white transverse bars ; by two dark brown, smoky bands which cross the hind wings ; and by a series of black dashes on the fore wings, one in each cell between the apex of the wing and the anal vein. These dashes appear as if drawn casually with a pen. The larva (Fig. 408) is not uncommon upon ash and lilac ; it i= greenish or bluish white above, and darker below ; there are seven oblique yellow bands on the sides of the body, each edged FIG. 411. Ellenici harrisii, larva. LEPIDOPTERA. 335 above with dark green. When disturbed it assumes the threatening attitude shown in the figure. The Tomato-worm, Phlegethontius celcus (Phleg-e-thon'- ti-us ce'le-us). - - This larva is the best known of all our Sphinxes, as it may be found feeding on the leaves of tomato, tobacco, or potato wherever these plants are grown in our country. It resembles in its general appearance the larva of Sphinx cliersis (Fig. 408); but its favorite attitude is with the fore end of the body slightly raised. It is usu- ally green, but individuals are often found that are brown, or even black. There appear at frequent intervals in the newspapers accounts of people being injured by a poison excreted by the caudal horn of this larva ; but there is absolutely no foundation whatever for such stories. The pupa (Fig. 412) is often ploughed up in gardens, and attracts attention on account of its curious tongue-case, which is free, resembling the handle of a pitcher. The moth is a superb i- r FIG 412 Pklezethontius celeiis. creature, expanding four or five inches. It is of many delicate shades of ash-gray, marked with black or very dark gray ; there are a few short black dashes on the fore part of the thorax, and some irregular black spots edged with white on the posterior part ; the abdomen is gray with a black middle line, and five yellow, almost square spots along each side. Each of these spots is bordered with black, and has a white spot above and be- low, on the edge of the segment. The hind wings are crossed by four blackish lines, of which the two interme- diate are zigzag. The Tobacco-worm, Phlegethontius Carolina (Phleg-e-thon'- ti-us car-o-li'na). This species closely resembles the preced- ing, and the two are often mistaken the one for the other. The larvae have similar habits, feeding on the same plants. But the moths are easily distinguished. This species is brown- THE STUDY OF INSECTS. ish gray instead of ashy gray ; at the end of the discal cell of the fore wings there is a distinct white spot ; and the two dark bands crossing the middle of the hind wings are not zigzag, and are less distinctly separate ; often they are united into a single broad band. The Hog-caterpillar of the Vine, Ampelophaga myron (Am-pe-loph'a-ga my'ron). There is a group of Hawk- moths the larvae of which have the head and first two thoracic segments small, while the two following segments are greatly swollen. These larvae from a fancied resemblance to fat swine have been termed Hog-caterpillars ; and the present species, which is common on grape, has been named the Hog-caterpillar of the Vine. It is a comparatively small species, the full-grown larva being but little more than two inches long. There is a row of seven spots varying in color from red to pale lilac, each set in a patch of pale yellow, along the middle of the back. A white stripe with dark green margins extends along the side from the head to the caudal horn, and be- rlo. 413. Ampelopfiaga myron, larva with cocoons of parasites. J ow ^jg are seven oblique stripes. This larva is often infested by Braconid parasites ; and it is a common occurrence to find one of them with the cocoons of the parasites attached to it (Fig. 413). The pupa state is passed on the surface of the ground within a rude cocoon made by fastening leaves together with loose silken threads. The adult expands about two and one fourth inches. The fore wings are olive-gray, with a curved, olive-green, oblique band crossing the basal third, a discal point of the same color, and beyond this a large triangular spot with its apex on the costa and its base on the inner margin. The Pandorus Sphinx, PJiilampchis pandorus (Phi-lam'pe- lus pan-do'rus). This magnificent moth expands from four to four and one half inches. The ground-color of its wings LEPIDOPTERA. 337 is pale olive, verging in some places into gray ; the markings consist of patches and stripes of dark, rich velvety olive, sometimes almost black (Fig. 414). Near the inner margins of both pairs of wings the lighter color shades out into pale yellow, which is tinged in places with delicate rose-color. FIG. 414 Philampelus pandorus- These markings show a harmony of contrasting shades rarely equalled elsewhere by nature or art. The larva is one of the Hog-caterpillars. It feeds upon the leaves of Virginia-creeper. When young it is pinkish in color, and has a long pinkish caudal horn ; as it matures it changes to a reddish brown, and the horn shortens and curls up like a clog's tail and finally disappears, leaving an eye-like tuber- cle. The caterpillar has on each side six cream-colored oval spots, enveloping the spiracles. The White-lined Sphinx, DeilepJiila lincata (Dei-leph'i-la lin-e-a'ta). This moth can be easily recognized by Figure 415. Its body and fore wings are olive-brown; there are three parallel white stripes along each side of the thorax ; the outer one of these extends forward over the eyes to the base of the palpi ; on the fore wings there is a buff stripe extending from near the base of the inner margin to the apex, and veins III 5 to IX are lined with white: the hind 338 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. wings are black with a central reddish band. The larva is extremely variable in color and markings. It feeds on many plants, among which are apple, grape, plum, and currant. FIG. 415. Deilephila lineata. The Thysbe Clear-wing, Hemaris tJiysbe (He-ma'ris thys'be). There is a group of Hawk-moths that have the middle portion of the wings transparent, resembling in this respect the Sesiidae and certain Zygaenids ; but they are easily recognized as Hawk- moths by the form of the body, wings, and antennas. One of the more common of these is the Thysbe Clear- wing (Fig. 416). The scaled portions of the wings are of a dark reddish brown ; but this species is most easily distin- guished from our other common species by a line of scales dividing the discal cell lengthwise and representing the po- sition of the base of vein V. The larva of this species feeds on the different species of Viburnum, the snowberry, and hawthorn. The Bumblebee Hawk-moth, Hemaris diffinis (He-ma'ris dif-fi'nis). This Clear-wing appears to be about as common LEPIDOPTERA. 339 as the preceding, and resembles it somewhat. It lacks, however, the line of scales in the discal cell, and the body is more nearly yellow. This color probably suggested the name Bumblebee Hawk-moth, given to this insect nearly one hundred years ago by Smith and Abbot. The larva feeds on the bush honeysuckle (Diervilla) and the snow- berry (Symphoricarpus). Superfamily SATURNIINA (Sa-tur-ni-i'na). The Saturnians (Sa-tur' ni-ans). The group of families constituting the superfamily Sa- turniina includes the largest of our native moths ; in fact nearly all of our very large moths belong to it ; but it also includes a considerable number of species of moderate size. These moths are most easily distinguished from other moths by the structure of the wings (Fig. 417). Here, as with the Skip- pers and the Butterflies, the frenulum is lost (or nearly so in the low- est family), and its place is taken by a greatly ex- panded humeral angle of the hind wing, which, projecting under the fore wing, insures the acting together of the two in flight without the aid of a frenulum. This losing of the frenulum is also characteristic of the Lasiocampidae. But the Saturnians differ from this family in that vein V, arises midway between radius and cubitus, or is FIG. 417. Wings of Citheronia regalis. 340 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. more closely united to radius than to cubitus, leavi-ng the latter apparently three-branched ; while in the Lasiocampidae cubitus appears to be four-branched. This superfamily includes the Bombycidae which are represented in this country only by the Chinese Silkworm and three families of native moths. These can be separated by the following table : A. Vein V 2 of the fore wings arising midway between veins Vi and V 3 . p. 340 BOMBYCID/E. AA. Vein V 2 of the fore wings arising nearer to vein Vi than to vein Vs. B. Hind wings with two anal veins. C. The stalk of veins Vi and V 2 of the fore wings separating from radius before the end of the discal cell (Fig. 420. c. v.). p. 342 HEMILEUCID^E. CC. Vein Vi of the_/i>;v wings separating from radius beyond the apex of the discal cell. D. Veins Vi and V 2 of the hind wings joined to radius by a dis- tinct stalk (Fig. 417, c. ?/.). p. 343 CITHERONIID^E. DD. Vein Vi and V 2 of the hind wings not stalked (Coloradia}. p. 350 SATURNIID^E. BB. Hind wings with only one anal vein. p. 350. . .SATURNIID^E. Family BoMBYCHXiE (Bom-byc'i-dae). The Silk-worm. The Bombycidae as now restricted are not represented in our fauna ; but a single species, the Silk-worm, is frequently bred in this country, and is usually present in collections of Lepidoptera. The Silk-worm, Boinbyx mon (Bom'byx mo'ri). The moth (Fig. 418) is of a cream-color with two or three more or less distinct brownish lines across the fore LEPIDOPTERA. 341 nil wings and sometimes a faint double bar at the end of the discal cell. The head is small; the antennae are pectinated broadly in both sexes ; and the ocelli, palpi, and maxillae are wanting. The abdomen and thorax are densely clothed with woolly hair. The distinctive feature in the venation of the wings (Fig. 419) is the obvious presence of vein I on the hind wings. The usual food of the Silk-worm is the leaf of the mul- berry. Our native species, however, are not suitable. The species that are most used are the white mulberry (LI or us alba), of which there are several varieties, and the black mul- berry (Morns ni- gra]\ the former is the better. The of osage (Madura anrantiaca) have also been used as silk-worm food to a considerable ex- tent. In case silk- worms hatch in the springbef ore either mulberry or osage- orange leaves can be obtained, they may be quite SUC- FlG - 4I9- Wings of Bombyx mori. cessfully fed, for a few days, upon lettuce-leaves. The newly-hatched larva is black or dark gray, and is covered with long stiff hairs, which spring from pale-colored tubercles. The hairs and tubercles are not noticeable after leaves orange VII, VIIj VIII 342 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. ni, the first molt, and the worm becomes lighter and lighter, until in the last larval period it is of a cream-white color. There is a prominent tubercle on the back of the eighth ab- dominal segment, resembling those borne by certain larvae: of the Sphingidae. There are many special treatises on this insect, some of which should be consulted by any one intending to raise silk- worms. Family HEMILEUCID^E (Hem-i-leu'ci-dae). The Hcmilcucids (Hcm-i-lcu cids). This is a small family containing rather large and con- spicuously marked insects. The antennas are broadly pec- tinated in the males and narrowly so or nearly serrate in the females. There is only a single pair of teeth to each segment of the antennae. The thorax and abdomen are usually thickly clothed with long woolly hair ; but in some species the cloth- ing of the antennae is less woolly and more scale-like. As to the wings, the frenu- lum is wanting, the humer- al angle of the hind wings being largely developed (Fig. 420) ; and in both fore and hind wings veins V, and V 2 are joined to- radius by a common stalk. Our best-known repre- sentative is the Maia-moth, Hemileuca utaia (Hem-i-leu'ca ma'i-a). In this species (Fig. 421) the wings are thinly scaled, sometimes semi-transparent ;. VII, FlG. 420. Wings of Hemileuca maia. PLATE IV. LEPIDOPTERA. 343 they are black with a common white band near their middle ; and the discal veins are usually white and broadly bordered with black. There are great variations in the width of the white band on the wings. The larva feeds on the leaves of oak ; it is brownish black, with a lat- F,G. ^-Hemileuca ,naia. ^ ydlow ^j^ . ^ ^ armed on each segment with large branching spines. This species pertains to the eastern part of the continent ; but there are several western species belonging to the genus. In the West there occur also two species of the genus Pseudohazis (Pseu-do-ha'zis). These are P. hera (P. he'ra), in which the ground-color of the wings is white (Plate IV), and P. eglanterina (P. eg-lan-te-ri'na), in which the ground-color is brown. Both species are spotted and striped with black. In each the abdomen is ringed with black ; there is a large discal spot on each wing, which frequently has a white center due to white scales borne by the discal vein. The base of the wings is dusky. There is a transverse band at the end of the basal third, which is sometimes wanting on the hind wings ; and a broader, wavy, transverse band crossing both wings at the end of the basal two thirds ; and on each wing there is a series of six or seven triangular black spots situ- ated on the ends of the veins, at the outer margin of the wing. It should be said that both in the ground-color and in the markings these two forms vary much ; and it is possi- ble that they are merely varieties of one species. Family ClTHERONHD/E (Cith-e-ro-ni'i-dse). The Royal-moths. The Royal-moths are stout-bodied and hairy, with sunken heads and strong wings. The species are of medium or large 344 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. size, some of them being nearly as large as the largest of our moths. The most obvious character limiting this family is the structure of the antennae of the male. These agree with those of the Saturniidae in having two pairs of teeth to each segment, but differ in being pectinated for only a little more than half their length. These moths also differ from most Saturniidae in having two anal veins in the hind wings. Al- though the antennae of the male are broadly pectinated, those of the female are filiform. The palpi and maxillae are -very small. The thorax and abdomen are densely clothed Fit-,. 422. Wings of Citheronia regalis IX FlG. 423. Wings of Anisota virgini- ensis. with long hairs. The wings are strong, with prominent veins. The frenulum is wanting, and the humeral angle of the hind wings is very largely developed. In the fore wings vein V 2 arises from the discal vein (Figs. 422, 423). The larvae are armed with horns or spines, of which those on the second thoracic segment, and sometimes also LEPJDOP TERA. 345 W 34-6 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. those on the third, are long and curved. These caterpillars eat the leaves of forest-trees, and go into the ground to trans- form, which they do without making cocoons. The rings of the pupa bear little notched ridges, the teeth of which, to- gether with some strong prickles at the hinder end of the body, assist it in forcing its way upwards out of the earth. This is a small family ; it is not represented in Europe, and less than twenty species are known to occur in this country. The more common ones are the following : The Regal-moth, CitJieronia regalis (Cith-e-ro'ni-a re-ga'- lis). This is the largest and most magnificent of the Royal- moths (Fig. 424). The fore wings are olive-colored, spotted with yellow, and with the veins heavily bordered with red scales. The hind wings are orange-red, spotted with yellow, and with a more or less distinctly marked band outside the middle olive. The wings expand from four to six inches. When fully grown the larva measures from four to five inches in length. It is our largest caterpillar, and can be readily recognized by the very long spiny horns with which it is armed. Those of the mesothorax and metathorax are much longer than the others. Of these there are four on each segment ; the intermediate ones measure about three fifths inch in length. This larva feeds on various trees and shrubs. The Imperial-moth, Basilona impcrialis (Bas-i-lo'na im- pe-ri-a'lis). This moth rivals the preceding species in size, expanding from four to five and one half inches. It is sulphur-yellow, banded and speckled with purplish brown. The full-grown larva (Fig. 425) measures from three to four inches in length. It is thinly clothed with long hairs, and bears prominent spiny horns on the second and third thoracic segments. In the early larval stages these thoracic horns are very long and spiny, resembling those of the larva of the Regal-moth. The larva feeds on hickory butternut, and other forest-trees. The Two-colored Royal-moth, SpJiingicampa bicolor LEPIDOPTERA. 347 (Sphin-gi-cam'pa bi'co-lor). In this species the upper side of the fore wings and the under side of the hind wings are yellowish brown, speckled with black. The under side of the fore wings and the upper side of the hind wings are to a con- FIG. 425. Basilona imperialis, larva. siderable extent pink. There is usually a dark discal spot on the fore wings, upon which, especially in the males, there may be two white dots. This species is more common in the Southern States than in the North. The expanse of wings in the male is two inches ; in the female, two and one half inches. The larva feeds on the leaves of the Honey- locust and of the Kentucky Coffee-tree. Anisota (An-i-so'ta). To the genus Anisota belong three species of moths that occur in the Eastern United States. These moths are dark yellow, purplish red, or brownish in color, and agree in having the fore wings marked with a white discal dot. The larvae feed on the leaves of oak; they are more or less striped and are armed with spines. These insects hibernate as pupae. In determining these moths the student should remem- ber that the two sexes of the same species may differ more in appearance than do individuals of different species but of the same sex. The sexes can be distinguished, as already indicated, by the antennae. The three species can be sepa- rated as follows : 34 777 K STUD V OF IA T SECTS. The Rosy-striped Oak-worm, Anisota virginiensis (A. vir- gin-i-en'sis). The wings of the female are purplish red, blended with ochre-yellow ; they are very thinly scaled, and consequently almost transparent ; and are not speckled with small dark spots (Fig. 426). The wings of the male are FIG. 427. Anisota virginiensis, FiG. 426. Anisotn virginiensis, female. male. purplish brown, with a large transparent space on the middle (Fig. 427). The larva is of an obscure gray or greenish color, with dull brownish yellow or rosy stripes, and with its skin rough with small white warts. There is a row of short spines on each segment, and two long spines on the mesothorax. The Orange-striped Oak-worm, Anisota scuatoria (A. sen- a-to'ri-a). The wings of the female are more thickly scaled than in the preceding species and are sprinkled with numer- ous blackish dots ; in other respects the two are quite similar in coloring. The male differs from that of A. rirginiciisis in lacking the large transparent space on the middle of the wings. The larva is black, with four orange-yellow stripes on the back and two along each side ; its spines are similar to those of the preceding species. The Spiny Oak-worm, Anisota stigma (A. stig'ma). The female closely resembles that of A. scnatoria ; and as both species are variable it is sometimes difficult to determine to which a given specimen belongs. In A. stigma the wings are rather darker and have a greater number of blackish spots, and the hind wings are furnished with a middle band which is heavier and more distinct than in A. senatoria. The male differs from that of the other two species in quite closely LEPIDOPTERA. 349 resembling the female in coloring, and in having the wings speckled. The larva differs from the other species of Ani- sota in having long spines on the dorsal aspect of the third thoracic and each abdominal segment in addition to the much longer spines on the mesothorax. It is of a bright tawny or orange color, with a dusky stripe along its back and dusky bands along its sides. The Rosy Dryocampa, Dryocaiupa rubicunda (Dry-o- cim'pa ru-bi-cun'cla). The wings of this moth (Fig. 428) are pale yellow, banded with rose-color. The dis- tribution of the color varies greatly in different speci- mens. In some the pink of the fore wings predomi- nates, the yellow being re- duced to a broad discal band, while in one variety FIG. 4-8 -/*,*>. r the ground-color is yellowish white and the pink is reduced to a shade at the base and a narrow stripe outside the mid- dle. The hind wings may be entirely yellow, or may have a pink band outside the middle. The expanse of wings in the male is one and one half to one and three fourths inches ; in the female, two inches or more. The larva of this species is known as the Green-striped Maple-worm, and is sometimes a serious pest on soft-maple shade-trees. It measures when full grown about one and one half inches. It is pale yellowish green, striped above with eight very light, yellowish-green lines, alternating with seven of a darker green, inclining to black. There are two prominent horns on the second thoracic segment, and two rows of spines on each side of the body, one above and one below the spiracles. And on the eighth and ninth abdomi- nal segments there are four prominent dorsal spines. The species is one- or two-brooded, and winters in the pupa state. 350 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. nr, in, Family SATURNIID.E (Sat-ur-ni'i-dae). The Giant Silk-worms. The large size of the members of the Saturniidae, and the with which the cocoons of most of the species can be collected, render them well known to every beginner in the study of entomology. The family includes our largest lepi- dopterous insects ; and all of the species known to us are above medium size. They are stout-bodied, hairy moths, with more or less sunken heads, and strong, wide wings. They may be distinguished from the Citheroniidae, some of which rival them in size, by the form of the antennae of the males, and by the fact that except in the lowest genus, Coloradia, which is a rare insect from the far West, the hind wings are furnished with only one inner vein. The adults fly at night, and are attracted by lights. The head is small and deeply sunken in the thorax ; the antennae are either fili- form or pectinated in the females, but always pecti- nated in the males ; and the pectinations extend to the tip. Where the antennae of both sexes are pectinated, the males can be distin- guished by the larger size of their antennae. The palpi are small, and the maxillae but little developed, often obsolete. VII, II, FIG. 429. Wings of Satnia cecropia* The thorax is densely clothed with hair. The wings are broad, and are often furnished with transparent, window- like spots. The frenulum is wanting. The humeral angle LEPIDOP TERA . 3 5 l of the hind wing is largely developed, and is usually strength- ened by a deep furrow, the bottom of which is sometimes thickened so as to appear like a humeral vein (Fig. 429). The larvae live exposed on the leaves of trees and shrubs ; they are more or less armed with tubercles and spines, and are very conspicuous on account of their large size. They transform within silken cocoons, which are usually very dense, and in some cases have been utilized by man. These cocoons are often attached to trees and shrubs, and are sometimes inclosed in a leaf. They can be easily collected during the winter months, and the adults bred from them. The following species are those that the young student is most likely to find : The lo-moth, Automcris io (Au-tom'e-ris i'o). This is the most common of the smaller species of the family. The female is represented by Figure 430. In this sex the FIG- 430- Autoineris io. ground-color of the fore wings is purplish red. The male differs greatly in appearance from the female, being some- what smaller and of a deep yellow color, but it can be easily recognized by its general resemblance to the female in other respects. The larva is one that the student should learn to recog- nize in order that he may avoid handling it ; for it is armed THE STUDY OF IX SECTS. with spines the prick of which is venomous (Fig. 431). It is green, with a broad brown or reddish stripe. -^ edged below with white, on each side of the abdo- men. The spines are tipped With black. The Polyphemus-moth, Tclca polypheunts (Te'le-a pol-y- phe'mus). This is a yellowish or brownish moth with a window-like spot in each wing. There is a gray band on the costal margin of the fore wings ; and near the outer mar- gin of both pairs of wings there is a dusky band, edged FIG. 431.-^ utoinerisio, larva. FIG. 432. Telea polyp hcmns. larva. without with pink; the fore wings are crossed by a broken dusky or reddish line near the base, edged within with white or pink. The transparent spot on each wing is divided by the discal vein, and encircled bv yellow and black rincs. * * PLATE V. LEPIDOPTERA. 353 On the hind wings the black surrounding the transparent spot is much widened, especially toward the base of the wing, and is sprinkled with blue scales. The wings expand from five to six inches. The larva (Fig. 432) feeds on oak, butternut, basswood, elm, maple, apple, plum, and other trees. When full grown it measures three inches or more in length. It is of a light green color with an oblique yellow line on each side of each abdominal segment except the first and last ; the last segment is bordered by a purplish-brown V-shaped mark. The tubercles on the body are small, of an orange color with me- tallic reflections. The co- coon (Fig. 433) is dense and usually enclosed in a leaf ; it can be utilized for the manufacture of silk. When the adult is ready to emerge, it excretes a fluid which softens the cocoon at one end, and '10.433. , breaking the threads it makes its exit through a large round hole. The Luna Moth, Tropcea lima (Tro-pce'a lu'na). This magnificent moth is a great favorite with amateur collectors (Plate V). Its wings are of a delicate light green color, with a purple-brown band on the costa of the fore wings ; there is an eye-like spot with a transparent center on the discal vein of each wing; and the anal angle of the hind wings is greatly prolonged. The larva feeds on the leaves of wal- nut, hickory, and other forest-trees. It measures when full grown about three inches in length. It is pale bluish green with a pearl-colored head. It has a pale yellow stripe along each side of the body, and a transverse yellow line on the back between each two abdominal segments. The cocoon resembles that of the preceding species in form, but is very thin, containing but little silk. 354 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The Promethea Moth, CallosaniiapronictJica((l,-a\-\Q-'s>d,'vs\\-'d, pro-me'the-a). This is the most common of the Giant Silk- worms. The wings of the female (Fig. 434) are light reddish FIG. 434. Callosantia proiethea, female. brown ; the transverse line crossing the middle of the wings is whitish, bordered within with black ; the outer margin of the wings is clay-colored, and each wing bears an angular discal spot. The discal spots vary in size and distinctness in different specimens. The male differs so greatly from the female that it is liable to be mistaken for a distinct species. It is black- ish, with the transverse lines very faint, and with the discal spots wanting or very faintly indicated. The fore wings also differ markedly in shape from those of the female, the apex being much more distinctly sickle-shaped. The larva when full grown measures two inches or more in length. It is of a clear and pale bluish-green color ; the legs and anal shield are yellowish ; and the body is armed with longitudinal rows of tubercles. The tubercles are black, polished, wart-like elevations, excepting two each on the second and third thoracic segments, which are larger and rich coral-red, and one similar in size to these but of a yellow color on the eighth abdominal segment. This larva feeds on the leaves LEPIDOPTERA. 355 of a large proportion of our common fruit and forest trees; but we have found it more frequently on wild cherry and ash than on others. The cocoons can be easily collected during the winter from these trees. This is the best way to obtain fresh specimens of the moths, which will emerge from the cocoons in the spring or early summer. The cocoon (Fig. 435) is interesting in structure. It is greatly elongated and is enclosed in a leaf, the petiole of which is securely fast- ened to the branch by a band of silk extending from the co- coon ; thus the leaf and enclosed cocoon hang upon the tree throughout the winter. At the upper end of the cocoon there is a conical valve like arrange- ment which allows the adult to emerge without the necessity of making a hole through the cocoon. This structure is char- acteristic of the cocoons of the moths of this and the following Jtat i^SJ-iii; :. C>. *V .XT--V genus. The Angulifera Moth, Callo- samia angulifera (C. an-gu-lif'e- ra). This is a somewhat rare in- sect which so closely resembles the Promethea Moth that by many it is considered a variety of it. Specimens of it are usu- ally a little larger than those of C.promethea, and the transverse line and discal spots are more angular. The most important differences, however, are pre- sented by the male, which quite closely resembles the female FIG. 435. Callosamia protnetkea, cocoon. 356 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. of the Promethea Moth in color and markings, and thus differs decidedly from the male of that species. The Cecropia Moth, Samia cccropia (Sa'mi-a ce-cro'pi-a). This is the largest of our Giant Silk-worms, the wings of the adult expanding from five to six and one half inches. The ground color of the wings is a grizzled dusky brown, espe- cially on the central area. The wings are crossed beyond the middle by a white band, which is broadly margined without with red, and there is a red spot near the apex of the fore wing just outside of a zigzag line. Each wing bears near its center a crescent-shaped white spot bordered with red. The outer margin of the wings is clay-colored. The larva is known to feed on at least fifty species of plants, including apple, plum, and the more common forest trees. When full grown it measures from three to four inches in length and is dull bluish green in color. The body is armed with six rows of tubercles, extending nearly its entire length, and there is an additional short row on each side on the ventral aspect of the first five segments follow- ing the head. The tubercles on the second and third thoracic segments are larger than the others, and are coral-red. The other dorsal tubercles are yellow, excepting those of the first thoracic and last abdominal segments, which with the lateral tubercles are blue ; all are armed with black bristles. The FIG. 436. Samia cccropia, pupa. FIG. 437. Samia ceoopia, coco;>n LEPID OP TERA . 357 pupa is represented by Figure 436 and the cocoon by Figure 437- The Cecropia-moth occurs from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky Mountains. In the far West its place is taken by very closely allied forms, which are supposed to be distinct. In these the ground-color of the wings is usually a reddish or dusky brown. The form occurring in Utah and Arizona is Samia gloveri (S. glov'er-i) ; that found on the Pacific coast is Saniia californica. The Ailanthus-worm, Philosamia cyntJiia (Phil-o-sa'mi-a cyn'thi-a), is an Asiatic species that has been introduced into this country. It has become a pest in the vicinity of New York, where it infests the Ailanthus shade-trees. The moth differs from all our native species of this family in having rows of tufts of white hairs on the abdomen. The cocoon resembles that of the Promethea-moth. Family LACOSOMID.E (Lac-o-som'i-dae). The Sack-bearing Frenulum-losers. This family so far as is now known includes only two species that are found in the United States, and both of these are rare ; farther south several other species occur. They are our only native Frenulum-losers that retain a rudi- ment of the frenulum, but, as in the silk-worm, this frenulum is very small and the humeral angle is greatly expanded, so it is probable that the frenulum is of but little if any use (Fig. 438). It was the presence of this rudiment that first suggested to the writer that those families of the Lepidop- tera that we have termed Frenulum-losers were descended from frenulum-bearing ancestors. The Lacosomidae seem to be the sole survivors of a very distinct line of descent. In many respects they appear to be closely allied to the Saturniina, especially to the Bom- bycidae. But they differ markedly both in the structure and in the habits of the larvae ; and, too, the wings of the adult, 358 THE STUDY OF INSECTS, VII, although at first sight resembling those of the silk-worm, are really quite different. In the coalescence of the branches of ra- dius of the fore wings veins III 3 and III 4 remain separate, while in the Satur- niina these are the first branches to coa- lesce. And in the hind wings there is no indication that vein I becomes joined to the base of vein II as is shown to be the case in the most generalized Satur- niina (Figs. 417 and 419). The members of FIG. 438. Wings of Cicinnus tnelsheimerii. this famil\ T ill the lar- val state feed upon leaves, and protect themselves by mak- ing a case of leaves within which they live (Fig. 439). FIG. 439. Case of larva of Cicinnus. FIG. 440. Cicinnus tnelsheimerii. Melsheimer's Sack-bearer, Cicinnus melsheimerii (Ci-cin'- nus mels-hei-me'ri-i). The larva of this species feeds on oak. The adult moth (Fig. 440) is of a reddish gray color, finely sprinkled all over with minute black dots; there is a small black spot at the end of the discal cell of the fore wings ; LEPIDOPTERA. 359 nil and both pairs of wings are crossed by a narrow blackish band. This species is quite widely distributed ; but is quite rare in most places. The other representative of this family found in the United States is Lacosoma cliiridota (Lac-o-so'ma chir-i-do'- ta). This species is even more rare than the preceding; it is somewhat smaller, and dark yellowish brown in color ; but its general appearance is very similar. The venation of the wings is also similar to that of Cicinnus except that vein VIII of the hind wing is wanting. Family LASIOCAMPID^E (Las-i-o-cam'pi-dae). The Lasiocampids (Las-i-o-cani pids). This family includes the Te'nt-caterpillars and the Lap- pet-caterpillars. The adults are stout-bodied, hairy moths of medium size. The antennae are pectinated in both sexes, and are from one fourth to one half as long as the front wings ; the teeth of the an- tennae of the male are usu- ally much longer than those of the female. The ocelli are I wanting ; and the palpi are usually short and woolly. But the most distinctive char- acteristic is found in the wings. The frenulum is want- ing, there being instead, as in the Saturniina, a largely- expanded humeral angle of the hind wings. But these moths differ from the Satur- niina in having CubltUS ap- FlG - 44'--Wings of Clisiocawpa americana. parently four-branched and in having the humeral angle Vj VIIi 360 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. strengthened by the development of some extra veins, the humeral veins (Fig. 441, h. v.)* The larvae of the Lasiocampids feed upon the foliage of trees, and are frequently very destructive. The family is a small one, less than thirty North Ameri- can species being known to entomologists. Our more com- mon ones represent three genera : Clisiocampa (Clis-i-o-cam'- pa), which includes the Tent-caterpillars, and PJiyllodesina (Phyl-lo-des'ma) and Tolype (Tol'y-pe), which include the Lappet-caterpillars. There are several species of Tent-caterpillars in this country. Most of them belong to the Pacific coast; but two are common in the East. Of these the most com- mon one is the Apple -tree Tent -caterpillar, Clisiocampa americana (C. a-mer-i-ca'na). This is the insect that builds large webs in apple and wild cherry trees in early spring. Figure 442 represents its transformations. The moth is dull yellowish brown or reddish brown, with two transverse whitish or pale yellowish lines on the fore wings. The figure represents a male; the female is somewhat larger. These moths appear early in the summer. The eggs are soon laid, each female laying all her eggs in a single ring-like cluster about a twig; and here they remain unhatched for about nine months. This cluster is covered with a substance which protects it during the winter. The eggs hatch in early spring, at the time or just before the leaves appear. The larvae that hatch early feed upon the unopened buds till the leaves expand. The larvae are social, the entire brood that hatch from a cluster of eggs keeping together and building a tent in which they live when not feeding. The figure represents a specimen in our collection. In this case the tent was begun near the cluster of eggs. But usu- * So far as we know, humeral veins occur nowhere else in the Lepidoptera, although in many butterflies vein I of the hind wings is preserved and appears like a humeral vein. The humeral veins of the Lasiocampids do not represent any of the primitive veins, but are developed secondarily. LEPID OP TERA . 361 ally the larvae soon after hatching migrate down the branch towards the trunk of the tree until a fork of considerable size is reached before they begin their tent. This is neces- sary, as the completed tent often measures two feet or more in length. The larvae leave the nest daily in order to feed ; and spin a silken thread wherever they go. The larvae be- FIG. 442. Clisiocatiipa amcricana, eggs, tent, larva, cocoons, and adult. come full grown early in June ; one of them is represented on a partially-eaten leaf in the figure. When ready to transform they leave the trees and make their cocoons in some sheltered place. These cocoons are quite peculiar in appearance, having a yellowish white powder mixed with the silk. The pupa state lasts about three weeks. The easiest way to fight this pest is to destroy the webs containing the larvae as soon as they appear in the spring. This should be done early in the morning, or late in the 362 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. afternoon, or on a cold day, when the larvae are not scat- tered over the tree feeding. The other Eastern species of this genus is the Tent-cater- pillar of the Forest, Clisiocampa disstria (C. dis'stri-a). This species resembles the preceding in habits. It is more apt, however, to feed upon forest-trees. The moth differs from C. americana in having the oblique lines on the wings dark instead of light ; the larva differs in having a row of spots along the back instead of a continuous narrow line; and the egg-masses differ in ending squarely instead of being rounded at each end. The more common species of the Pacific coast are Clisio- campa calif ornica, whose nests may be found on oaks in March and April, and Clisiocampa constricta, which infests fruit-trees later in the season. The caterpillars of the last- named species do not make a tent, although they live in colonies. The larvae of Tolype and Phyllodesma are remarkable for having on each side of each segment a little lappet or flat lobe ; from these many long hairs are given out, forming a fringe to the body. When at rest the body of the larva is flattened, and the fringes on the sides are closely applied to the surface of the limb on which the insect is. Thus all ap- pearance of an abrupt elevation is obliterated ; the colors of these larvae are also protective, resembling those of the bark. The genus Tolype includes only two common North American species ; both of these occur in the East. The more com- mon of the two is the Velleda Lappet, Tolype vellcda (Tol'y-pe vel'le-da). The body of the moth is milk-white, with a large black- ish spot on the middle of its back FIG. 443. Tolype velleda. . . . (Fig. 443). That part of this spot which is on the thorax is composed of erect scales; the cau- LEPIDOPTERA. 363 dal part, of recumbent hairs. The wings are dusky gray, crossed by .white lines as shown in the figure. The figure represents the male ; the female is much larger. The moths are found in August and September. The larva feeds upon the leaves of apple, poplar, and syringa. Its body is bluish gray, with many faint longitudinal lines ; and across the back of the last thoracic segment there is a narrow velvety-black band. The larva reaches maturity during July. The cocoon is brownish gray, and is usually attached to one of the branches of the tree on which the larva has fed. The second species of this genus is known as the Larch Lappet, Tolype laricis (T. lar'i-cis). This is a smaller species, the females being about the size of the male of the preced- ing species, and the males expanding only about one and one fourth inches. The wings of the females are marked much like those of T. velleda, except that the basal two thirds of the front wings are much lighter, and the dark band on the outer third is narrower and much darker than the other dark bands. The males are bluish black, with the markings indistinct. The larva feeds upon the larch. When mature it is of a dull brown color and less than one and one half inches in length. When extended the front of the first thoracic segment is pale green, and the incision between the second and third is shining black. The larva matures during July. The cocoon is ash-gray, flattened and moulded to the limb to which it is attached, and partially surround- ing it. The moths appear in August or September. The winter is passed in the egg state. The genus PJiyllodesma includes three Califcrnian and two Eastern species. The more common one of the latter is the American Lappet, P. americana (Fig. 444). The moth is reddish brown, with the inner angle FIG. of the front wings and the costal margin of the hind wings deeply notched. Beyond the mid- 364 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. HI, die of each wing there is a pale band edged with zigzag, dark brown lines. The larva lives upon apple, cherry, oak, birch, maple, and ash. When full grown it measures two and one half inches in length and one half inch in breadth. The upper side is slate-gray, mottled with black, with two transverse scarlet bands, one on the second and one on the third thoracic segments. There is a black spot at each end and in the middle of each of these bands. The larva is found during July and August. It is said that the cocoons are attached to limbs like those of Tolype ; but the larvae of this species which we have bred made their cocoons between leaves, or in the folds of the muslin bag enclosing the limb upon which they were feeding. The species passes the winter in the pupa state ; t and the moth appears in y- June, when it lays its eggs upon the leaves of the trees it infests. Superfamily HESPERHNA (Hes-per-i-i'na). The Skippers. The Skippers are so called on account of their peculiar mode of flight. They fly in the daytime and dart suddenly from place to place. When at rest most species hold the wings erect in a vertical position like butterflies; in some the fore wings are thus held while the hind wings are extend- FIG. 445Wings of Efargyrtu* tityrus. ^ horizontally J aild a few extend both pairs of wings horizontally. The antennae XI IX LEPIDOPTERA. 3 6 5 are thread-like, and enlarged toward the tip; but in most cases the extreme tip is pointed and recurved, forming a hook. The abdomen is usually stout, resembling that of a moth rather than that of a butterfly. The skippers are most easily distinguished by the peculiar venation of the fore wings, vein III being five-branched, and all the branches arising from the discal cell (Fig. 445). In some butterflies all the branches of vein III appear to arise from the discal cell ; but this is because two of the branches coalesce to the margin of the wing. In such butterflies vein III appears to be only four-branched. This superfamily includes two families the Giant Skip- pers, Megathyniidcz, and the Common Skippers, Hesperiidcs. These can be distinguished as follows : A. Head of moderate size ; club of antenna large, neither drawn out at the tip nor recurved. Large skippers, with wing expanse of two inches or more. p. 365 MEGATHYMID^E. AA. Head very large ; club of antenna usually drawn out at the tip, and with a distinct recurved apical crook. In a few forms the crook of the antennse is wanting ; such forms can be distin- guished from the Megathymidse by their smaller size, the wing expanse being less than one and one fourth inches, p. 368. HESPERIIDjE. Family MEGATHYMID^: (Meg-a-thym'i-dae). The Giant Skippers. This family includes a small number of large skippers, which are found in the South and far West. In the adult insect the head is of moderate size, the width, includ- ing the eyes, being much less than that of the metathorax. The club of the antennae is large ; and, although the tip is turned slightly to one side, it is neither drawn out to a point nor recurved. The body is very robust, even more so than in the Hesperiidae. These insects fly in the day- time and with a rapid, darting flight. When at rest they fold their wings in a vertical position. In the more general features of their venation the wings 3 66 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. closely resemble those of the Hesperiidae. But the Giant Skippers exhibit a very peculiar specialization of wing struc- ture in the male sex. Here the two branches of vein VII of the fore wings separate from each other and from the cross- vein connecting them with vein V 3 , near the base of the wing (Fig. 446). In this sex this cross-vein, the branches of in. VII 2 FIG. 447. Wings of Alegathymus cofaqui, female. XI JX. FIG. 446. Wings of IWegathymits yucca, male. vein VII, and vein IX are all very stout. The strengthening of these veins is evidently a specialization that increases the power of flight of this sex. For these stout veins must aid in depressing the hind wings during the downward stroke of the wings, as the hind wing is overlapped by that part of the fore wing traversed by these veins. The separation of the branches of vein VII from each other and from the cross- vein, so near the base of the wing, is directly correlated with the strengthening of these veins. In the course of the perfecting of the powers of flight in the male these LEPIDOPTERA. 367 FIG. 448. Megathymus cofaqui. veins have split apart, so that they overlie the hind wings to a greater extent than they do in the female (Fig. 447), which probably represents a more primitive condition. It is a common occurrence for the wings of the male to be more highly specialized than those of the female, for, in the seeking of mates, the males fly more than do the females. But it is unusual for veins to coalesce to a smaller extent in specialized forms than in those more generalized. In other words, the ordinary course of specialization is for veins to grow together instead of to split apart. This family is represented in the United States by a single genus, of which only three species are known. The female of one of these, Megathymus cofaqui (Meg-a-thy'mus cof-a-qui'), is represented by Figure 448. The male differs in the smaller size of the spots on the fore wing, in lacking the band of spots on the hind wing, and in having the upper surface of the hind wing nearly covered with long fine black hairs, which stand nearly erect. This species has been found in Florida and Colorado. A much better known species is the Yucca-borer, Mega- thymus yucca (M. yuc'cae). The female of this species differs from that of the preceding in having much darker wings, all of the spots being smaller, and in having only one or two white spots on the lower surface of the hind wings. The male lacks the erect hairs on the hind wings. The larva bores in the stem and root of the Yucca or Spanish Bayonet. It differs greatly in appearance from the larvae of the HesperiidiE, having a small head. This species is widely distributed through the southern part of our country. 368 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The third species, Megathymus neumcegeni (M. neu-moe- gen'i), occurs in Arizona. * Family HESPERIID^E (Hes-pe-ri'i-dae). The Common Skippers. The family Hesperiidse includes all skippers found in the United States except im s the three species de- lv, scribed above as the /v, Giant Skippers. In ad- dition to the differences indicated in the table (p. 365), it may be said that the males in the Hesperiidae lack the pecu- liar thickening and split- ting apart of the branches of vein VII of the fore wings characteristic of O the Giant Skippers. But there exists instead in the males of nearly all spe- cies peculiar scent-organs, which are described later. Figure 449 represents the venation of a male mem- XI IX ber of this family. The larvae of the FIG. 449. Wings of Epnrgyreus tityrus. Common Skippers pre- sent a very characteristic appearance, having large heads and strongly con- stricted necks (Fig. 450). -,. .. *" FIG. 450. Epargyreus tityrns, larva. ihey usually live con- cealed in a folded leaf or in a nest made of several leaves LEPIDOPTERA. 369 fastened together. The pupae are rounded, not angular, resembling those of moths more than those of butterflies. The pupa state is passed in a slight cocoon, which is gen- erally composed of leaves fastened together with silk, and thinly lined with the same substance. The family Hesperiiclae includes three subfamilies; but only two of them are represented in this country, the third being confined to South and Central America. Our forms can be separated as follows : A. Vein V 2 of the fore wings arising nearer to vein Vi than to vein Vs. p. 369 HESPERIIN^E. AA. Vein V 2 of the fore wings arising midway between veins Vi and V 3 or nearer to vein V 3 than to vein Vi. B. Vein V 2 of the fore wings arising nearly midway between veins V, and V,. C. Discal cell of fore wings more than two thirds as long as the costa. Males usually with costal fold in fore wings, p. 369. HESPERIIN/E. CC. Discal cell of fore wings less than two thirds as long as the costa. Males usually with a discal patch on fore wings. p. 372 PAMPHILIN^E. BB. Vein V 2 of the fore wings arising much nearer to vein V 3 than to vein Vi. p. 372 PAMPHILIN^:. Subfamily HESPERIIN^E (Hes-pe-ri-i'nae). Skippers witJi a Costal Fold. This subfamily includes the larger of the Common Skippers, as well as some that are of moderate size. Most of the species are dark brown, marked with white or trans- lucent, angular spots. The antennae usually have a long club, which is bent at a considerable dis- tance from the tip (Fig. 451). But the most distinctive feature of the sub- family is exhibited by the males alone, and is lacking in some species. It consists of a fold in the fore wing near FlG - W'T o the costal margin, which forms a long slit-like pocket, con- 37O THE STUDY OF INSECTS. taining a sort of silky down. This is supposed to be a scent-organ. When this pocket is tightly closed it is diffi- cult to see it. Nearly seventy species belonging to this subfamily have been found in America north of Mexico. The following are some of the more common of these: The Silver-spotted Skipper, Epargyreus tityrus (Ep-ar- gy're-us tit'y-ms)- - - This skipper is represented on our colored plate (Plate I, Fig. 4). It is dark chocolate-brown, with a row of yellowish spots extending across the fore wing and with a large silvery-white spot on the lower side of the hind wing. It is found in nearly the whole United States, from Massachusetts to California, except in the extreme Northeast and Northwest. The larva (Fig. 450) feeds upon various papilionaceous plants. We have found it common on locust. It makes a nest, within which it re- mains concealed, by fastening together, with silk, the leaf- lets of a compound leaf (Fig. 452). FlG. 452. Nest of larva of Epargyreus tityrus. The Long-tailed Skipper, Endamus proteus (Eu'da-mus pro'te-us). This Skipper by the shape of its wings reminds 'one of a swallow-tail butterfly, the hind wings being furnished with long tails. It expands about one and three fourths inches; and the greatest length of the hind wings is about one and one fourth inches. The wings are very dark choc- olate-brown ; the front wings contain several silvery-white spots ; and the body and base of the wings bear metallic- LEPIDOP TERA . green hairs. The larvae feed upon both Leguminosae and Cruciferae. In the South it is sometimes a pest in gardens, cutting and rolling the leaves of beans, turnips, and cabbage, and feeding within the rolls thus formed. It is found on the Atlantic border from New York southward into Mexico. There are two common skippers which are nearly as large as the two described above, but which have neither the yellow band of the first nor the long tails of the second ; neither do they have the brown spots characteristic of the following genus. These two skippers belong to the genus Thorybes. The wings are of an even dark brown; the fore wings are flecked with small or very small irregular white spots, and the hind wings are crossed beneath by two rather narrow, parallel, inconspicuous darker bands. These skippers are distinguished as follows : The Northern Cloudy-wing, Thorybes pylades (Thor'y-bes pyl'a-des). In this species the white spots on the fore wing are usually mere points, although their number and size vary. The species is found in nearly all parts of the United States. The larva commonly feeds on clover. The Southern Cloudy-wing, Thorybes batliyllus (T. ba-thyl'lus). In this species the white spots are larger than in the preceding, almost forming a continuous band. This skipper is widely distributed over the eastern United States, except the more northern portions. To the genus Thanaos belong a large number of species which on account of their dark colors have been named Dusky-wings. These species resemble each other so closely in markings that it is very difficult to separate them with- out longer descriptions than we can give here. The one following will serve as an example. Martial's Dusky-wing, Thanaos martialis (Than'a-os mar-ti-a'lis). The wings are grayish brown with FIG. 453. Thanaos many dark brown spots evenly distributed and with several 37 2 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. minute white ones on the outer half of the fore wings (Fig. 453). This skipper is found throughout the greater part of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. Among the smaller members of this subfamily are the skippers of the genus Pholisora. The most widely dis- tributed species of this genus is the Sooty-wing, Pholisora catullus (Phol-i-so'ra ca-tul'lus). The expanse of the wings is a little more than one inch. The wings are nearly black. o J marked with minute white spots, which vary in size and number. This species is found throughout the United States except along the extreme northern border. The genus Hcspcria includes a considerable number of small skippers, which are easily recognized by their check- ered markings of white upon a dark brown ground. Small white spots on the wings are common in this subfamily, but in this genus the white spots are unusually large, so large in some cases that they occupy the greater part of the wing. One of the more common species is the Variegated Tessellate, Hesperia montivaga (Hes-pe'ri-a mon-tiv'a-ga). This is distributed from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and is the only one common in the Eastern United States. In this species more than one half of the outer two thirds of both fore and hind wings is white. Subfamily PAMPHILIN^E (Pam-phi-li'nae). Skippers with a Discal Patch. This subfamily includes the greater number of our smaller skippers. Some of the species, however, surpass in size many of the Hesperiinae. To the Pamphilinae belong all of our common tawny skippers, as well as some black or dark brown species. The antennae usually have a stout club, with a short, recurved tip ; sometimes this tip is FIG. 454. Limochores pon- . . . , //-, male. wanting, in the majority of our species the males can be recognized at a glance by a conspicuous LEPIDOPTERA, 373 discal patch, which usually appears to the naked eye like a scorched, oblique streak near the center of each fore wing (Fig. 454). This patch is a complicated organ, com- posed of tubular scales that are outlets of scent-glands and other scales of various shapes. The females can be recognized by their resemblance in other respects to the males. In some species the discal patch is wanting in the males also. This subfamily is an exceedingly difficult one to study. More than one hundred species have been described from America north of Mexico ; and in many cases the differences between allied species are not well marked. The following t\vo are named merely as examples, The first is easily recognized. But it is not worth while for the beginning student to attempt to distinguish other members of this subfamily. The Least Skipper, AncyloxipJia mnnitor (An-cy-lox'i-pha nu'mi-tor). This skipper is the smallest of our common species, and is also remarkable for lacking the recurved hook at the tip of the antennae. The wings are tawny, broadly margined with dark brown. In some specimens the fore wings are almost entirely brown. The larger in- dividuals expand about one inch. The larva feeds upon grass in damp places. The Black Dash, LimocJiores pontiac (Li-moch'o-res pon'ti-ac). The male of this species is represented by Figure 454. It is blackish brown, with considerable yellow on the basal half of the fore wings. The discal patch is velvety black. This species is distributed from Massachu- setts to Nebraska. Superfamily PAPILIONINA (Pa-pil-i-o-ni'na). The Butterflies. The butterflies differ from moths in that they have clubbed antennae, fly only in the daytime, and hold the 374 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. wings erect above the back when at rest. There are some moths that have clubbed antennae, and others that fly by day but no moth presents all three of the charac- teristics given above. It is more difficult to distinguish the but- terflies from the skip- pers ; yet this can be easily done. In but- terflies the club of the antenna is bluntly rounded at the tip instead of being fur- nished with a re- curved point as in most skippers ; the abdomen is very slen- der ; and some of the branches of radius of the fore wings co- alesce beyond the There are butterflies in v VII VII 2 FIG. 455. Wings of BasiJarchia astyanax, apex of the discal cell (Fig. 455). which all of the branches of radius present arise from the discal cell ; but this is clue to the fact that two of the branches coalesce to the edge of the wing, as is shown by the fact that in these butterflies radius has less than five branches. This superfamily includes four families, which can be separated as follows : A. Cubitus of the fore wings apparently four-branched (Fig. 456). p. 375 PAPILIONIDJE. AA. Cubitus of the fore wings apparently three-branched (Fig. 455). B. With six well-developed legs, although in some species the fore LEPID OP TERA . 375 legs of the male are a little shorter, and the tarsi of these lack one or both claws ; radius of the fore wings, with rare exceptions, only three- or four-branched. To determine the number of branches of radius, count the two cubital and the three medial branches first ; the branches left between veins Vi and II belong to radius. C. Vein V, of the fore wings arising at or near the apex of the discalcell (Fig. 465; except in Fentseca targw'nties,in which the wings are dark brown, with a large fulvous spot on each. p. 388 LYCVENID^. CC. The first branch of media of the fore wings united with the last branch of radius for a considerable distance beyond the apex of the discal cell (Fig. 460). Ground color of wings white, yellow, or orange, p. 381 PIERID^E. BB. With only four well-developed legs, the fore legs being un- used, much shorter than the others, and folded on the breast like a tippet (except in the female of Hypatus). Radius of fore wings five-branched (Fig. 467), p. 395 NYMPHALID^E. Family PAPILIONID^ (Pa-pil-i-on'i-dae). The Swalloiv-tails and the Parnassians. This family includes the swallow-tail butterflies, which are common throughout our country, and the Parnassians, which are found only on high mountains or far north. These insects are distinguished from all other butterflies by the fact that vein V, of the fore wings appears to be a branch of cubitus, making this vein appear four-branched (Fig. 456), and also by the fact that the anal area of the hind wings is more reduced than the anal area of the fore wings, the former containing only a single anal vein, the latter two or three. The caterpillars are never furnished with spines, but are either naked or clothed with a few fine hairs. In a single species in our fauna (Laertias pJdlenor) the body of the larva bears fleshy filaments. A striking peculiarity of the larvae of this family is the presence of a pair of bright-colored fleshy " horns," which can be projected from a slit in the dorsal wall of the pro- 376 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. thorax. These have been termed osinatcria (os-ma-te'ria), and are supposed to be organs of defence ; for they exhale when pushed out an odor which in some species is exceedingly dis- agreeable. The chrysalids are thickened in the middle and taper considerably at each end ; they are more or less angulated, and have certain parts excessively produced ; they are sus- pended by the tail and by a loose girth around the middle. This family includes two well-marked subfami- lies, which are distin- guished as follows : FIG. 456. Wings cf Papilio polyxenes. A. Hind wings with a tail- like prolongation ; ground- color of wings black ; radius of fore wings five-branched ; the base of vein VIII of fore wings preserved as a spur-like branch of vein VII (Fig. 456). p. 376 PAPILIONIN^;. AA. Hind wings without tail-like prolongation ; ground color of wings white ; radius of fore wings four-branched ; vein VIII of fore wings wanting, p. 380 PARNASSIIN/E Subfamily PAPlLlONlNyE (Pa-pil-i-o-ni'nae). The Swallow-tails. These magnificent butterflies are easily recognized by their large size and the tail-like prolongations of the hind wings. The ground color of the wings is black, which is LEPIDOPTERA. 377 usually marked with yellow, and often with metallic blue or green. There are about twenty-five species of swallow-tails in America north of Mexico. The following well-known spe- cies will serve as illustrations. The Black Swallow-tail, Papilio polyxenes (Pa-pil'i-o po- lyx'e-nes). The larva of this swallow-tail (Fig. 457) is well known to most country children. It is the preen n\ <9:l 3> XSJ^V / worm, ringed with black and spotted with yellow, that eats the leaves of caraway in the back yards of coun- try houses. It feeds also on parsnip and other umbelliferous plants. These caterpillars always fascinated us in 14 our childhood ; we have spent many idle moments in poking them with straws to see them rear upward and project their yellow horns, which gave off a sickening odor. When ready to transform the caterpillar crawls away to a fence or the side of the house and changes to an angular pupa, sus- pended by the tail and by a little silken girth around the middle. In the adult the wings are black, crossed with two rows of yellow spots, and with marginal lunules of the same color. The two rows of spots are much more distinct in the male than in the female, the in- ner row on the hind wing forming a continuous band crossed FIG. 457. Papilio poly.\:enes, larva. 378 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. with black lines on the veins. Between the two rows of spots on the hind wings there are many blue scales ; these are more abundant in the female. Near the anal angle of the hind wing there is an orange spot with a black center. On the lower surface of the wings the yellow markings become mostly orange and are heavier. This species is found throughout the United States and in the southern parts of Canada. The Tiger Swallow-tail, Jasoniades glaucns (Jas-o-ni'a-des glau'cus). The larva of this butterfly (Fig. 458) is even more striking in appearance than that of the preceding species. When full grown it is dark green, and bears on each side of the third thoracic segment a large greenish- yellow spot, edged with black, and enclos- ing a small purple spot bordered with black. This caterpillar has the curious habit of weaving upon a leaf a carpet of silk, upon which it rests when not feed- ing ; when nearly full grown, instead of spinning a simple carpet as before, it stretches a web across the hollow of a leaf and thus makes a spring bed upon which it sleeps (Fig. 458). In the adult state two distinct forms of this insect occur. These differ so greatly in appearance that they were long con- sidered distinct species. They may be distinguished as follows : (i) The Turnus Yorm, Jasoniades glaiicus turnus. The wings are bright straw-yellow above, and pale, faded straw- yellow beneath, with a very broad black outer margin, in which there is a row of yellow spots. On the fore wings there are four black bars, extending back from the costa ; the inner one of these crosses the hind wings also. This form FIG. 458. Jasoniades glau cus, larva upon its bed. LEPIDOPTERA. 379 is represented by both sexes, and is found in nearly all parts of the United States and Canada. (2) The Glaucus Form, Jasoniades glaucns glaucus. In this form the disk of the wings is entirely black, but the black bands of the Turnus form are faintly indicated, espe- cially on the lower surface, by a darker shade. The mar- ginal row of yellow spots is present, and also the orange spots and blue scales of the hind wings. This form is rep- resented only by the female sex, and occurs only in the more southern part of the range of the species, i.e., from Delaware to Montana and southward. The Zebra Swallow-tail, Iphiclides ajax (Iph-i-cli'des a'jax). This butterfly (Fig. 459) differs from all other swal- low-tails found in the eastern half of the United States in hav- ing the wings crossed by several bands of greenish white. This is one of the most in- teresting of our but- terflies, as it occurs under three distinct forms, two of which were considered for a long time distinct species. Without tak- ing into account the FlG - 459.-#**''* more minute differences these forms can be separated as follows : (1) The Early-spring Form, Iphiclides ajax marcellus (mar-cel'lus). This is the form figured here. It expands from two and six tenths inches to two and eight tenths inches ; and the tails of the hind wings are about six tenths inch in length and tipped with white. (2) The Late-spring Form, Iphiclides ajax telamonides 380 THE SJ^UDY OF INSECTS. (tel-a-mon'i-des). This form is a little larger than marccllus and has tails nearly one third longer ; these tails are bordered with white on each side of the distal half or two thirds of their length. (3) The Summer Form, Iphiclides ajax ajax. The sum- mer form is still larger, expanding from three and two tenths inches to three and one half inches, and has tails nearly two thirds longer than the early-spring form. The life-history of this species has been carefully worked out by Mr. W. H. Edwards. He has shown that there are several generations each year, and that the winter is passed in the chrysalis state. But the early-spring form and the late-spring form are not successive broods; these are both composed of individuals that have wintered as chrysalids, those that emerge early developing into uiarcellns, and those that emerge later developing into tclainonides. All of the butterflies produced from eggs of the same season, and there are several successive broods, are of the summer form, ajax ajax. The larva feeds upon papaw (Asimina). This insect is found throughout the eastern half of the United States except in the extreme north. Subfamily PARNASSIIN.E (Par-nas-si-i'nae). The Parnassians (Par-nas' si-ans}. The Parnassians differ from the Swallow-tails in lacking o the tail-like prolongations of the hind wings and in that the ground-color of the wings is white ; but resemble them in the general plan of the venation of the wings, and in pos- sessing similar scent-organs (osmateria) in the larval state. The wings of the butterflies are usually conspicuously marked with black spots and shades, and with red spots. Only four species have been found in North America. These belong to the genus Parnassins (Par-nas'si-us). They are found only on hiVh mountains or far north. LEPIDOPTERA. 381 III, Family PiERlD^E (Pi-er'i-dae). The Pierids (Pi ' e-rids). These butterflies are usually of medium size, but some of them are small; they are nearly always white, yellow, or orange, and are usually marked with black. They are the most abundant of all our butterflies, being common every- where in fields and roads. Some species are so abundant as to be serious pests, the larvas feeding on cultivated plants. The characteristic features of the venation of the wings are the following (Fig. 460): Vein V a of the fore wings is more closely connected with radius than with cubitus, the latter appear- ing to be three-branched; vein V, of the fore wings coalesces with radius for a considerable distance beyond the apex of the discal cell ; and only three or four of the branches of radius remain distinct. In this family the fore legs are well developed in both sexes, there being no tendency to their reduc- tion in size, as in the two following families. The larvae are usual- ly slender green worms , . i j , 1 i r; FIG. 460. Wings of Pont! a pro/odice. clothed with short, fine hairs; the well-known Cabbage-worms are typical illus- trations (Fig. 461). The chrysalids are supported by the tail and by a loose girth around the middle. They may be distinguished at a glance by the presence of a single pointed projection in front (Fig. 461). XI VII, VII, 382 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. Our genera of this family can be separated into three groups, which seem hardly distinct enough to be ranked as FIG. 461. Pieris >aj>&, larvae and pupa. subfamilies. These are the Whites, the Yellows, and the Orange-tips. I. TJic Whites. The more common representatives of this group are the well-known Cabbage-butterflies. They are white butterflies more or less marked with black. Occa- sionally the white is tinged with yellow ; and sometimes yel- low varieties of our white species occur. About a dozen North American species of this group are known. The Cabbage-butterfly, Pieris rapes (Pi'e-ris ra'pae). -The wings of this butter- fly are dull white above, occasionally tinged with FIG. 462. Pieris rapm. .... . yellowish, especially in the female; below, the apex of the fore wings and the entire LEPIDOPTERA. 383 surface of the hind wings are pale lemon-yellow. In the female there are two spots on the outer part of the fore wing besides the black tip, in the male only one (Fig. 462). There is considerable variation in the intensity of the black markings, and in the extent of the yellow tinge of the wings. The larva of this species (Fig. 461) feeds principally on cabbage, but it also attacks many other cruciferous plants. Its color is the green of the cabbage-leaf, with a narrow, greenish, lemon-yellow dorsal band, and a narrow, inter- rupted stigmatal band of the same color. The body is clothed with very fine short hairs. Pieris rap<-Ai caianus. ca j stigma, which is filled with the peculiar scent-scales, known as andriconia. The males are also distinguished by having a tuft of hair-like scales, the beard, on the front ; this is wanting or very thin in the fe- males. About fifty species occur in America north of Mexico ; of these nearly twenty occur in the eastern half of the United States. The Banded Hair-streak, TJiecla caianus (Thec'la cal'a- LEPID OP TERA . 393 nus). In the Northeastern United States the most common of the hair-streaks is this species (Fig. 466). The upper surface of the wings is dark brown or blackish brown. The under surface is blackish slate-brown nearly as dark as the upper surface, and marked as shown in the figure. The larva feeds on oak and hickory. Excepting the southern portion of the Gulf States, the species is found throughout our territory east of the Rocky Mountains, and in the southern part of Canada. The Olive Hair-streak, Mitoura damon (Mi-tou'ra da'mon). The upper surface of the wings is dark brown, with the disk more or less deeply suffused with brassy yellow in the male or tawny in the female ; the hind wing has two tails, one much longer than the other, both black tipped with white. The lower surface of the hind wings is deep green ; both fore and hind wings are marked with white bars bordered with brown (Plate VI, Fig. 6). The larva feeds on red cedar. The species occurs from Massachusetts to Florida and westward to Dakota and Texas. The Banded Elfin, Incisalia nipJion (In-ci-sa'li-a ni'phon). In the butterflies of the genus Incisalia the fringe of the outer margin of the hind wings is slightly prolonged at the end of each vein, giving the wings a scalloped outline ; they also lack tail-like prolongations of the hind wings. There are several species occurring on both sides of the con- tinent. One of these, the Banded Elfin, is represented on Plate VI (Fig. 4). In this species there is a distinct white or whitish edging near the base of the under side of the hind wing which limits a darker band that occupies the outer two thirds of the basal half of the wing. This species occurs in the Eastern and Middle States. The larva feeds on pine. The Hair-streaks described above are of moderate size and modest colors. The two following will serve to illustrate o a somewhat different type. The Great Purple Hair-streak, Atlides halesus (At'li-des 394 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. ha-le'sus). This is the largest of our eastern hair-streaks, the larger individuals expanding two inches. In the male the greater part of the upper surface of the wings is bright blue ; the discal stigma, the outer fourth of the fore wings, the apex of the inner margin of the hind wings, and the tails are black. In the female the outer half of the wings is black. The species occurs in the southern half of the United States and southward. It has been found as far north as Illinois. The larva is said to feed on oak. The White-M Hair-streak, EupsycJic m-albwn (Eu-psy'- che m-al'bum). This is a smaller species, expanding about one and one half inches. The upper surface of the disk of the wings is a rich, glossy dark blue, with green reflec- tions ; a broad outer border and costal margin are black. The hind wing has two tails, and a bright dark orange spot preceded by white at the anal angle. The under sur- face is brownish gray, and on this surface both wings are crossed by a common, narrow white stripe, which forms a large W or reversed M on the hind wings. This species occurs in the southern half of the United States. The larva feeds on oak and on Astrangulus. Subfamily LEMONIIN^E (Le-mon-i-i'nae). TJic Lemoniids (Le-mo 1 ni-ids\ This is a large subfamily; but the species are found chiefly in South and Central America. In our fauna it is represented only by a small number of rare butterflies. If we except one Floridian species (Euincnia atala^, this subfamily is represented in the Eastern United States by only two species. In the far West eleven others are now known. The eastern species are the Large Metal-mark, CalepJiclis borcalis (Cal-e-phe'lis bo-re-a'lis), which expands one inch or more, and the Small Metal-mark, CalcpJiclis ccenius (C. cae'ni-us), which expands less than four fifths of an inch. In both species there are on the outer half of the wings two lines of shining lead-colored scales. LEPIDOPTERA. 395 Family NYMPHALID^: (Nym-plrnl'i-dae). Tke Four-footed Butterflies. The family Nymphalidae includes chiefly butterflies of medium or large size ; but a few of the species are small. With a single exception, these butterflies differ from all others in our fauna in having the fore legs very greatly re- duced in size in botJi sexes. So great is the reduction that these legs cannot be used for walking, but are folded on the breast like a tippet. A slight reduction in the size of the fore legs occurs in the Lycaenidae, but there it occurs only in the males, and to a much less degree than in this family. In the venation of the wings (Fig. 467) the four-footed butterflies differ from the two preceding families in retaining all of the branches of radius of the fore wings, this vein be- ing five-branched. The la r v ae are nearly or quite cylin- d r i c a 1, and are clothed to a greater or less extent with hairs and sometimes with branching spines. The chrysalids are usually angular, and often bear large pro- jecting prominences; sometimes they are rounded. They al- ways hang head downwards S Up- FIG. 467. Wings of Basilarchia astyanax. ported only by the tail, which is fastened to a button of silk. VII, 396 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. This is the largest of the families of butterflies. It not only surpasses the other families in number of species, but it contains a greater number and variety of striking forms, and also a larger proportion of the species of butterflies familiar to every observer of insects. There may be in any locality one or two species of yellows or of whites more abundant, but the larger number of species commonly ob- served are four-footed butterflies. Five subfamilies of the Nymphalidae are represented in our fauna. These can be separated by the following table, which is based on one given by Mr. Scudder : A. With none of the veins of the fore wings unusually swollen at the base. B. Antennse clothed with scales, at least above. C. Fore wings at least twice as long as broad, p. 397. HELICONIN^E. CC. Fore wings less than twice as long as broad. D. Palpi much longer than the thorax, p. 396. .LiBYTHEiNyE. DD. Palpi not as long as the thorax, p. 398. . .NYMPHALIN^E. BB. Antennae naked, p. 397 EUPLOZIN/E. AA. With some of the veins of the fore wings greatly swollen at the base. p. 410 SATYRIN/E. Subfamily LlBYTHEIlSLE (Li-byth-e-i'nae). The Long-beaks. The Long-beaks can be easily recognized by their ex- cessively long, beak-like palpi, which are from one fourth to one half as long as the body and project straight forward (Fig. 468). The outer margin of the fore wings is deeply notched ; the males have only four well-developed legs, while FIG. 4 68.-7/r//* baclnnanni. the females haVC six. Only three species have been found in America north of Mexico ; and of these but one occurs in the Eastern United States. LEP1DOPTERA. 397 The Snout Butterfly, Hypatus bac/iviaiinii (Hyp'a-tus bach-man'ni-i). - -The wings are blackish brown above, marked with orange patches and white spots. The species occurs throughout the Eastern United States, excepting the northern part of New England and the southern part of Florida. The larva feeds on Celtis occidentalis. Subfamily HELICONIIN^: (Hel-i-co-ni-i'nae). T/te Hcliconians (Hel-i-co ni-ans). This subfamily consists chiefly of tropical butterflies ; a few species, however, extend into the southern portion of our territory. They are of medium or rather large size, and are easily recognized by their narrow and elongated fore wings, which are usually more than twice as long as broad. Subfamily EUPLCEIN/E (Eu-plce-i'nae). TJie Euplccids (En-plce 1 ids). These are butterflies of large size, with rounded and somewhat elongated wings, the apical portion of the fore wings being much produced. The absence of scales on the antennae is the most available character for distinguishing these insects. Only a very few species occur in our fauna. The best known of these is the following : o The Monarch, Anosia plexippus (A-no'si-a plex-ip'pus). The upper surface of the wings is light tawny brown, with the borders and veins black, and with two rows of white spots on the costal and outer borders as shown in Figure 469. The figure represents a female ; in the male the veins of the wings are more narrowly margined with black, and there is a black pouch next to vein VII 2 of the hind wings, containing scent-scales or androconia. The larva feeds upon different species of milk-weed, As- clepias. When full grown it is lemon or greenish yellow, broadly banded with shining black. It is remarkable for bearing a pair of long fleshy filaments on the second thoracic segment, and a similar pair on the seventh abdominal seg- THE STUDY OF INSECTS. ment. The chrysalis is about one inch in length. It is bright green, dotted with gold. This species occurs throughout the greater part of the United States, and is distributed far beyond our borders. FIG. 469. Anosia pltxippus, It is believed, however, that the species dies out each year in a large part of the Northern States, and that those butter- flies which appear first in this region, in June or July, have flown hither from the South, where they hibernate in the adult state. In the extreme South they fly all winter. Great swarms, including many thousands of individuals of this species, are sometimes seen. Subfamily NYMPHALIN/E (Nym-pha-li'nae). The Typical Nymphalids (Nym-pha 1 lids). The butterflies of this subfamily vary so much in the outline and ornamentation of the wings that it is impossible to briefly characterize them. The student, however, will have no difficulty in distinguishing them by means of the table of subfamilies' already given. Our genera represent five quite distinct groups, as follows: I . The Crescent-spots or the Melitceids (M el-i-tae'ids). Th is group includes some of the smaller members of the Nym- LEPIDOPTERA. 399 phalinae. The color of the wings is sometimes black, with red and yellow spots ; but it is usually fulvous, with the fore wings broadly margined, especially at the apex, with black, and crossed by many irregular lines of black. About fifty species occur in this country. The Baltimore, Euphy dry as phaeton (Eu-phyd'ry-as pha'- e-ton). The wings above are black, with an outer marginal row of dark reddish-orange spots, and parallel rows of very pale yellow spots ; on the fore wings a third row is more or less represented. The wings expand two inches or more. The larvae feed on a species of snakehead (Chelone glabra) ; they are gregarious, and build a common nest by weaving together the leaves of their food-plant. The species occurs in Ontario and the northern half of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. It is very local, the butter- flies remaining near the bogs or moist meadows where the food-plant of the larva is found. The butterflies of the genus PJiyciodes (Phy-ci-o'des) and the allied genera abound throughout our country. They are of small size, and of a fulvous color, heavily marked with black. Each species varies considerably in mark- ings, and different species resemble each other quite closely, making this a difficult group for the begin- ning student. Figure 470 repre- FlG ' 47<>.-/%,w sents a common species. II. The Fritillaries (Frit'il-la-ries) or the Argynnids (Ar- gyn'nids). This group includes butterflies varying from a little below to somewhat above medium size. The color of the wings is fulvous, bordered and checkered with black, but not so heavily bordered as in the crescent-spots. The lower surface of the hind wings is often marked with curving rows of silvery spots. This is a large group containing many species, which are extremely difficult to separate. More than fifty species occur in America north of Mexico. The larvae feed upon the leaves of violets. 4QO THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The Great Spangled Fritillary, Argynnis cybelc (Ar-gyn'- nis cyb'e-le). This species (Fig. 471) will serve to illustrate FIG. 471. Argynnis cybele. the appearance of the larger members of this group, those belonging to the genus Argynnis. In this genus vein III,, of the fore wings arises before the apex of the discal cell. There are a number of common fritillaries which resem- ble the preceding in color and markings but which are much smaller, the wings expanding considerably less than two inches. These belong to the genus Brent his (Bren'this). In this genus vein III 2 of the fore wings arises beyond the apex of the discal cell. The Variegated Fritillary, Enptoieta claudia (Eup-toi-e'ta clau'di-a). This butterfly agrees with the smaller fritillaries (Brenthis) in the origin of vein III 2 of the fore wing beyond the apex of the discal cell, but differs from them in the shape of the fore wing, the apex of which is much more produced FIG. w.-Ewptoieta claudia. (Fig. 4/2), and tllC OUtCl" margin, except at the apex, concave; it is also considerably larger. This species occurs throughout the United States east of LEPIDOP TERA . 40 1 the Rocky Mountains ; but it is very rare in the northern half of this region. III. T/ie Angle-wings or the Vanessids (Va-ives'sids). To this group belong many of our best-known butterflies. With these the outer margin of the fore wings is usually decidedly angular or notched as if a part had been cut away. A large proportion of the species hibernate in the adult state, and some of them are the first butterflies to appear in the spring. Some of the hibernating species, 'however, remain in conceal- ment till quite late in the season. The Red Admiral, Vanessa atalanta (Va-nes'sa at-a- lan'ta). The wings are purplish black above. On the fore wing there is a bright orange-colored band beginning near the middle of the costa, and extending nearly to the inner angle ; between this and the apex of the wing are several white spots, as shown in Figure FIG. 473. I'anessa atalanta. 473 ; on the hind wing there is an orange band on the outer margin inclosing a row of black spots. The lower surface of the wings is shown on Plate I, Fig. 6. The larva feeds chiefly on nettle and on hop. When first hatched it folds together a half-opened leaf at the sum- mit of the plant ; when larger it makes its nest of a lower expanded leaf. There are two broods ; both butterflies and chrysalids hibernate. This butterfly occurs over nearly the whole of the European and North American continents. The Painted Beauty, Vanessa Jmntera (Va-nes'sa hun'- te-ra). The wings above are very dark brownish black, with large irregular spots of golden orange. In the apical portion of the fore wings there are several white spots, as shown 4O2 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. in Figure 474. The lower surface of the wings is repre- sented on Plate I, Fig. 7. A characteristic feature is the presence of two submarginal eye-like spots on the hind wing. The larva feeds on everlasting (Gnaphalium) and allied plants. The species occurs in Ontario and nearly the whole of the United States. FIG. 474. J'ani'ssa hnntera. The Cosmopolitan Butterfly, Vanessa cardui (V. car'du-i). -The butterfly resembles the preceding very closely in color and markings. There is, however, a smaller propor- tion of orange markings ; and on the lower surface of the hind wings there is a submarginal row of four or five eye- like spots. The larva feeds upon Compositae, especially thistles. This species is very remarkable for its wide distribution. Mr. Scudder states that "with the exception of the arctic regions and South Ameri- ca it is distributed over the entire extent of every continent." The American Tor- toise-shell, Aglais milberti (Ag'la-is mil-ber'ti). The wings above are brownish FlG - 475 black, with a broad orange- fulvous band between the middle and the outer margin. LEP1DOPTERA. 403 There are two fulvous spots in the discal-cell of the front wing (Fig. 475). The larvae feed upon nettle (Urticd) ; they are gregarious in their early stages. This species occurs in the northern portions of the United States and in Canada. The Mourning-cloak, Euvanessa antiopa (Eu-va-nes'sa an-ti'o-pa). The wings above are purplish brown, with a broad yellow border on the outer margin sprinkled with brown, and a submarginal row of blue spots. The upper surface is represented by Figure 476, the lower by Plate VI, Fig. 5- The larvse live on willow, elm, poplar, and Ccltis ; they are gregarious, and often strip larger branches of their leaves. The species is usually two-broodecl. " This butter- FIG. 476. Ewvanessa antiopa. fly is apparently distributed over the entire breadth of the Northern Hemisphere below the Arctic Circle as far as the thirtieth parallel of latitude " (Scudder). The Compton Tortoise, Eugonia j-album (Eu-go'ni-a j-al'- bum). This butterfly (Fig. 477) resembles in its general appearance those of the genus Polygonia, but it is sharply dis- tinguished from them by the inner margin of the fore wings being nearly straight, by the heavier markings of the fore 404 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. wings, and by the presence of a whitish spot on both fore and hind wings, near the apex, and between two larger black patches. On the lower surface of the hind wings there is a small L-shaped silvery bar. This species occurs FIG. 477. Eugonia j-album. throughout Canada and the northern portion of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. Polygonia (Pol-y-go'ni-a). The butterflies of this genus resemble the preceding species in having a metallic spot on the lower surface of the hind wings, but differ in having the inner margin of the fore wings roundly notched beyond the middle. Nearly a dozen species occur in this country. These differ principally in the coloring and markings of the under surface of the hind wings. The following are some of the more common ones : The Green Comma, Polygonia faunus (P. fau'nus). The silvery mark of the hind wings is usually in the form of a C or a G, the ends being more or less expanded (Plate VI, Fig. 2), but sometimes it is reduced to the form of an L. The lower surface of the wings is more greatly variegated than in any other species of this genus ; and there is a larger amount of green on this surface than in any other of the eastern species, there being two nearly complete rows of green spots on the outer third of each wing. The larva feeds upon black birch, willow, currant, and LEPfDOPTERA. 405 wild gooseberry. This is a Canadian species ; but it is also found in the mountains of New England and of New York, and in the northern portions of the Western States, extend- ing as far south as Iowa. The Hop-merchant, Polygonia comma (P. com'ma). As in the preceding species, the silvery mark of the hind wings is in the form of a C or a G (PI. VI, Fig. 3) ; but the general color of the lower surface of the hind wings is very different, being marbled with light and dark brown ; and the green spots so characteristic of faunus are repre- sented here by a few liliaceous scales on a submarginal row of black spots. Two forms of this species occur. In one, P, comma dry as, the hind wings above are suffused with black on the outer half, so that the submarginal row of fulvous spots is ob- scured, and on the lower side the wings are more yellowish than in the other form. The latter is known as P. comma harrisii (P. c. har-ris'i-i). The larva feeds upon hop, elm, nettle, and false-nettle. It is often abundant in hop-yards, and the chrysalids are commonly known as hop-merchants, from a saying that the golden or silvery color of the metallic spots on the back of the chrysalis indicates whether the price of hops is to be high or low. This species is found in Canada and the northern part of the eastern half of the United States; its range extends south to North Carolina, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Indian Territory. The Gray Comma, Polygonia progne (P. prog'ne). In its general appearance this butterfly closely resembles P. comma, but it can be readily distinguished by the form of the silvery mark, which is L-shaped and tapers towards the ends. The larva feeds on currant, wild gooseberry, and rarely elm. This species occurs in Canada and in the northern por- tion of the United States except in the extreme West. The Violet Tip, Polygonia interrogations (P. in-ter- 406 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. ro-ga-ti-o'nis). This butterfly (Plate VI, Fig. 8) is some- what larger than the preceding species of Polygonia, and differs in the form of the silvery mark, which consists of a dot and a crescent, resembling somewhat an interrogation- mark, but more nearly a semicolon. On the upper side the outer margins of the wings and the tails of the hind wings are tinged with violet. This species is dimorphic ; and the two forms differ so constantly and in such a marked manner that they were described as distinct species. In P. intcrrogationis fabricii (P. i. fa-bric'i-i) the upper surface of the hind wings is not much darker than that of the fore wings, and there is a submarginal row of fulvous spots in the broad ferruginous brown border. In P. interrogalionis nvibrosa (P. i. um-bro'sa) the outer two thirds of the upper surface of the hind wings is blackish, and the submarginal fulvous spots are obliterated, except some- times faint traces near the costal margin. This species is found in Canada and throughout the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. IV. The Sovereigns. These butterflies differ from other Nymphalinae in having the club of the antennae marked by four slightly elevated lines, and in that veins I, II, and III of the hind wing (Fig. 467, p. 395) separate at the same point. This group includes some of our most elegant but- terflies ; the larvae are grotesque in appearance, being very irregular in form and strikingly mottled or spotted. The Banded Purple, BasilarcJiia artlieinis (Bas-i-lar'chi-a ar'therjnis). The upper surface of the wings is velvety chocolate-black, marked with a conspicuous white bow (Fig. 478)- This is a Canadian species which extends a short distance into the northern part of the United States ; the larva feeds on birch, willow, poplar, and many other plants. The Red Spotted Purple, BasilarcJiia astyanax (B. as-ty'a-nax). The upper surface of the wings is velvety indigo-black, tinged with blue or green. There are three LEPID OP TERA . 4O/ rows of blue or green spots on the outer third of the hind wings ; the spots of the inner row vary greatly in width in different individuals. On the lower surface there is a reddish orange spot in the discal cell of the fore wings, and one on the discal vein ; on the hind wings there are two orange spots similarly situated, a third at the base of cell II, and a row of FIG. 478. Basilarchia arthemis. seven spots just within a double row of submarginal blue or green spots. This species occurs throughout nearly the whole of the Eastern United States south of the 43d parallel of latitude. The larva feeds on many plants ; among them are plum, apple, pear, and gooseberry. The Hybrid Purple, Basilarchia astyanax-artJiemis. There occurs, along a narrow belt of country extending from southern Wisconsin and northern Illinois eastward to the Atlantic coast of New England, a butterfly that closely re- sembles the Red-spotted Purple, but which has more or less of the white band of the Banded Purple. This is believed to be a hybrid between these two species. The region in which it occurs is that in which the ranges of the two species overlap. North of this region, of these three forms only the Banded Purple occurs ; south of it only the Red-spotted Purple is found. The Viceroy, Basilarchia archippus (B. ar-chip'pus). The wings vary in color from a dull yellow orange tinged 408 THE STUD y OF INSECTS. slightly with brown to a dark cinnamon color ; they are bordered with black, and all the veins are edged with the same color (Fig. 479). The fringe of the wings is spotted with white, and the black border on the outer margin con- tains a row of white spots. FIG. 479 Basilarchia a This species is remarkable for its resemblance to the Monarch (Anosia plexippus, Fig. 469). But aside from the structural characters separating the two subfamilies which these butterflies represent, the Viceroy can be easily distin- guished from the species it mimics by its smaller size, and by the presence of a transverse black band on the hind wings. It is believed that the resemblance of these two species is not merely accidental, but is a result of the action of the law of natural selection. The butterflies of the subfamily to which the Monarch belongs (Euplceince) are exempt from the attacks of birds. It is supposed that this exemption is due to the possession by these butterflies of a disagreeable odor. With such an odor the conspicuous coloring of the butterflies is protective, the birds soon learning that such butterflies are not fit for food. And it can be seen that these birds will naturally leave undisturbed any other butterflies LEPIDOP TERA . 409 that resemble the ill-smelling ones, even though they do not possess a similar odor. According to the theory of natural selection these resemblances have been produced as follows. In the case of a variable species that is unprotected by any disagreeable quality, any variation towards a protected spe- cies will tend to preserve the life of the individual possessing it. And in turn such offspring of these individuals as still more nearly resemble the protected species will be most likely to be preserved. The continued action of this natural selection will result in producing a species that closely re- sembles the protected one, even though it may be very different structurally from the one that it mimics. Many instances of unconscious mimicry of this kind are known. They are especially abundant in the tropics where the foul-smelling Hcliconince are most abundant. The bad odor of these butterflies when living is so marked that it can be detected by the human nose; and it is found that many species of them are mimicked by other butterflies, and especially those of the Pieridae. The mimicry is not con- fined to similarity in coloring, but extends to the shape of the wings and manner of flight. The larva of the Viceroy feeds upon willow, poplar, balm of gilead, aspen, and cottonwood. The species two- or three- brooded, and hibernates as a partially grown larva in a nest made of a rolled leaf. This nest is lined with silk, and the leaf is fastened to the twig with silk so that it can- not fall during the winter. Mr. Scudder states that so far as is known to him all of the species of the Sovereigns hi- bernate as larvae in nests of this kind. It is worthy of note that only the autumn brood of caterpillars make these nests. So that the nest-building instinct appears only in alternate generations, or even less frequently when the species is more than two-brooded. B. archippus is found over nearly the whole of the United States as far west as the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and has been found sparingly even to the Pacific coast near our northern boundaries. 4IO THE STUDY OF INSECTS. As Anosia plexippns has been termed the Monarch, this species is aptly called the Viceroy. V. The Emperors. The butterflies of this group are found chiefly in the southern part of our country. The fol- lowing is the best known species : The Goat-weed Butterfly, An but according to the most generally accepted view the six bristles represent the upper lip (lubriiiii), the tongue (Jtypopharynx\ the two man- dibles, and the two maxilke, and the sheath enclosing these bristles is the lower lip (labiuni). The palpi which are not enclosed in the sheath are the maxillary palpi. At the tip of the lower lip there is. on each side, a lobe-like appendage ; these are the labial palpi. The labial palpi of certain flies are quite large ; in the House-fly, for example, they are ex- panded into broad plates, which are fitted for rasping. In their transformations flies pass through a complete metamorphosis. The larvae are commonly called maggots. These are usually cylindrical and are footless ; some possess a distinct head, others do not; the form of the mouth-parts varies greatly in the different families; and there are re- markable variations in the form of the respiratory organs, especially as to the number and position of the spiracles. The pupae are usually either naked or enclosed in the last DIPTERA. 415 larval skin. A few are enclosed in cocoons. When the pupa state is passed within the last larval skin the body of the pupa separates from the larval skin more or less com- pletely ; but the larval skin is not broken till the adult fly is ready to emerge. In this case the larval skin, which serves as a cocoon, is termed a pnpariuni (pu-pa'ri-um). In some families the puparium retains the form of the larva ; in others the body of the larva shortens, assuming a more or less barrel-shaped form (Fig. 483, 2), before the change to a pupa takes place. This is a large order, both in number of species and individuals. The spe- cies differ much in habits. Some are very annoying to man. Familiar examples are the mosquito, which attacks his person ; the flesh-flies, which infest his food ; the bot-flies and gad- flies that torment his cat- tle ; and the gall-gnats that destroy his crops. Other species are very beneficial. Those belonging to the Syrphidae, and to the sub- family Tachininas of the Muscidse destroy many noxious insects ; and very many species, while in the larval state, feed upon decaying animal and vegetable matter, thus acting as scavengers. Although the habits of these creatures, which revel in all kinds of filth, are very disgusting, we cannot help admir- ing that arrangement by which a mass of filth, instead of FIG. 483. The Apple-maggot ; i. larva; 2. pupa- rium ; 3, adult; la, head of larva from side, showing mouth-parts and cephalic spiracle ; ib, head of larva Irom below ; ic, caudal spiracle of larva. 416 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. being left to poison the atmosphere, is transformed into myriads of living beings, whose swift flight and delicate forms lend life and beauty to the landscape. SYNOPSIS OF THE DIPTERA. THE STRAIGHT- SEAMED FLIES. Flies in which the pupa escapes from the larval skin through a T-shaped opening, which is formed by a lengthwise split on the back near the head end and a crosswise split at the front end of this (Fig. 484),. or rarely through a crosswise split be- tween the seventh and eighth abdominal segments, adults without a frontal lunule.* Suborder ORTHORRHAPHA (Or-thor'rha-pha). The Long-horned Orthorrhapha or Nematocera (Nem-a-toc'e-ra). Flies with four- or five-jointed pendulous palpi and with many- jointed antennae, which are usually long. The segments of the antennae, except the basal two, are similar in form, and are more than six in number; they are often fringed with hairs or bristles. f * The frontal lunule is a small crescent-shaped piece immediately above the antennae, which is characteristic of the second suborder, the Cyclor- rhapha. In most of the members of this suborder there is a suture separating the lunule from that part of the head above it, the frontal suture', and frequently this suture extends down on each side to near the mouth (Fig. 485). But as the suture is wanting in several families of the Cyclorrhapha, it is often difficult to determine whether the lunule is present or not. The following statement will enable the student to recognize nearly all of the members of the first suborder. ^sh'owfng ~f "mat The suborder Orthorrhapha includes : suture All flies in which the antennae are more than three-jointed, not counting a bristle or style borne by the third segment. All flies with three-jointed antennae in which vein III is four-branched. Such of the flies in which vein VII 2 appears like a cross-vein, or curves back towards the base of the wing, as lack the suture above the antennae. This section includes only a few Empididae and the families Dolichopodidse and Lonchopteridae. Nearly all of the flies in which vein VII 2 is of the form described here possess the suture above the antennas, and hence belong to the Cyclorrhapha. f The two types of antennae characteristic of the Nematocera and Brachycera respectively are connected by intermediate forms. These DIPTERA. 417 The True Nematocera. The antennae usually long and frequently bearing whorls of long hairs, especially in the males ; legs long and slender; abdomen usually long and slender. 77/6' Moth-like Flies, Family PSYCHODID^E. p. 428. The Midge-like Flies. The Crane-flies, Family TIPULID^E. p. 429. The Net-winged Midges, Family BLEPHAROCERID^E, p. 432. The Dixa-midges, Family DIXID^E. p. 436. The Mosquitoes, Family CULICID.E. p. 437. The Midges, Family CniRONOMlDyE. p. 440. The Fungus-gnats, Family MYCETOPHILID/E. p. 442. The Gall-gnats, Family CECIDOMYIID/E. p. 444. The Anomalous Nematocera. The antennae are composed of many segments, but are shorter than the thorax, and without whorls of long hairs. The segments of the antennae are short and broad and closely pressed together. Except in the first family, the abdomen is comparatively stout, and the legs are shorter and stouter than in the True Nematocera. The False Crane-flies, Family RHYPHID^:. p. 448. The Solitary-midge, Family ORPHNEPHILID^E. p. 449. The March-flies, Family BIBIONID/E. p. 449. The Black-flies, Family SIMULIID^:. p. 451. The Short -horned Orthorrhapha or Brachycera (Bra-chyc'e-ra). Orthorrhapha with one- or two-jointed, porrect palpi, and with usually short, three-jointed antennae. The third segment of the antenna is sometimes distinctly ringed, showing that it is really composed of many segments grown together ; and sometimes the antennae are four- or five-jointed. The Anomalous Brachycera. The third segment of the antenna is ringed, showing that it is composed of several segments grown together. The body is not furnished with strong bristles. The Horse-flies, Family TABANIDA;. p. 453. occur in those families grouped below as the Anomalous Brachycera (see Figs. 489, 490, and 492). The Nematocera and Brachycera are more sharply distinguished by the form of the palpi, as indicated in this Synopsis ; but sometimes it is difficult to see the palpi. A more easily seen distinction is presented by the venation of the wings. In the Anomalous Brachycera cell V 2 is divided by a cross-vein and cell VIII is closed before the margin of the wing or is greatly narrowed at the margin of the wing (see Figs. 539, 545, and 551). In the Nematocera cell VIII is never closed, and cell V 2 is divided only in the Tipulidse and Rhyphidse, and in these families the antennae are distinctly composed of many segments. 41 8 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The Soldier-flies, Family STRATIOMYIID^E. p. 455. The Snipe-flies (in part), Family LEPTID.B. p. 456. 77/6' True Brachycera. The antennae are usually three-jointed, but sometimes four- or five-jointed; the third segment is not ringed, but usually bears a style or bristle.* The body is usually furnished with strong bristles. True Brachycera with the empodia pulvilliform. Flies in which there are three membranous lobes beneath the tarsal claws (Fig. 495).t The Snipe-flies (in part), Family LEPTiDyE. p. 456. The Small-headed Flies, Family ACROCERID.E. p. 458. The Tangle- veined Flies, Family NEMISTRINID^E, p. 459. True Brachycera 'with the empodia not pulvilliform. Flies in which there are only two membranous pads beneath the tarsal claws (Fig. 494). Vein III of the wings four-branched. The Robber-flies, Family ASILID.E. p. 460. The Midas-flies, Family MIDAID^;. p. 461. The Apiocerids, Family APIOCERID^;. p. 462. The Bee-flies, Family BOMBYLID^;. p. 463. The Stiletto-flies, Family THEREVID^E. p. 464. The Window-flies, Family SCENOPINID^E. p. 465. The Dance-flies (in part), Family EMPIDID.*:. p. 466. Vein III of the wings three-branched. The Dance-flies (in part), Family EMPIDID^E. p. 466. The Long-legged Flies, Family DOLICHOPODID^. p. 467. The Spear-winged Flies, Family LONCHOPTERID^E. p. 469. THE CIRCULAR-SEAMED FLIES. Flies in which the pupa escapes from the larval skin through a circular orifice made by push- ing off the head end of it (Fig. 486). Adults with a frontal lunule. Suborder CYCLORRHAPHA (Cy-clor'rha- pha). Cyclorrhapha without a frontal suture (ASCHIZA). The Syrphus-flies, Family SYRPHID.. p. 470. The Big-eyed Flies, Family PIPUNCULIDA:. p. 473. FIG. 4 86. The Flat-footed Flies, Family PLATYPEZID/E. p. 474. The Humpbacked flies, Family PHORID^;. p. 475. * A similar type of antenna is possessed by the Cyclorrhapha, which were formerly on this account included in the Brachycera ; but this term is now restricted to the Short-horned Orthorrhapha. f The empodia are pulvilliform in the Anomalous Brachycera also ; but that group is easily distinguished by the form of the antennae. DIPTERA. 419 Cyclorrhapha with a frontal suture (SCHIZOPHORA) Normal Schizophora. The Thickhead-flies, Family CONOPID^:. p. 476. The Bot-flies, Family CEsTRiD^E. p. 477. The Muscids, Family MUSCID.E. p. 479. The Pupa-bearing Flies (PuPiPARA). The Louse-flies, Family HIPPOBOSCID^E. p. 487. The Bat-ticks, Family NYCTERIBIID^E. p. 489. The Bee-louse, Family BRAULID^E. p. 489. Classification of the Diptera. (For advanced students?) In the following table for determining the families of the Diptera use is made chiefly of characters based on the form of the head, an- tennae, and wings. The more important of the characters presented by the head are the presence or absence of the frontal lunule, and the presence or ab- sence of the frontal suture when the lunule is present. (See page 416, note.) In those families that possess the frontal suture there exists a large bladder-like organ, the ptilinum (ptil'i-num), which is pushed out through this suture when the adult is about to emerge from the puparium. In this way the head end of the puparium is forced off, making a large opening through which the adult escapes ; afterwards the ptilinum is withdrawn into the head. If a specimen is captured soon after its emergence from the puparium, there may be seen in- stead of the frontal suture the bladder-like ptilinum projecting from the head, immediately above the antennae. The form of the antennae is of prime importance in determining to what family a fly belongs. In the more generalized families the antenna consists of many segments, which, except the basal two, are similar in form (Fig. 487). Frequently such antennas bear whorls of long hairs (Fig. 488). In the more specialized families there is a re- duction in the number of segments of the antenna. This is brought about either by a more or less complete consolidation of the segments beyond the second into a single segment (Figs. 489 and 490), or by a dwindling of the terminal segments, so that they form merely a slen- der style (Fig. 491) or bristle (Fig. 492). Such a bristle is termed by many writers the arista (a-ris'ta). In most cases where a style or arista exists it is borne by the third segment, and this segment is then usually greatly enlarged. When the enlargement of this segment has taken place evenly the style or arista is terminal ; but frequently one part of the third segment is expanded so that it projects beyond the 420 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. insertion of the arista (Fig. 493) ; then the arista is said to be dorsal. The legs vary greatly in length and in stoutness. The coxae are usually long, and in most of the fungus-gnats (Mycetophilidse) they are very long. When pulvilli are developed they are membranous pads, one beneath each tarsal claw. A third appendage, the enipo- dium (em-po'di-um), often exists between the two pulvilli of each tar- FIG. 487. FIG. FIG. 489. FIG. 490. FIG. 491. sus. The empodia may be bristle-like, or tapering (Fig. 494), or membranous, resembling the pulvilli in form (Fig. 495); in the last case they are described as puhjilliform. Variations in the form and venation of the wings afford charac- ters that are much used in the classification of flies. In many fami- FIG. 492. FIG. 493. FIG. 494- FIG. 495. lies there is a notch in the inner margin of the wing near its base (Fig. 496, a e) ; this is the axillary excision; that part of the wing lying between the axillary excision and the base of the wing is the posterior lobe (Fig. 496, /). In certain families there is a membrane beneath the base of the wing and above the halter or rudimentary DIPTERA, 421 hind wing; this is the alula (al'u-la) or alulet (al'u-let). The alulae are well developed in the common House-fly. Each alula, in those species where the alulae are well developed, consists of two lobes which fold over each other when the wings are closed. The alulae are called the tegiila by many writers on Diptera; but the term tegtiia Vlh+IX FIG. 496. Wing of Conofs; ae, axillary excision ; /, posterior lobe. was first used in insect anatomy for the cup-like scale which covers the base of the wing in certain insects, as most Hymenoptera, and should be restricted to that use. The terms alula and alulet are also often misapplied, being used to designate the posterior lobe of the wing. The plan of the venation of the wings can be easily learned by a study of the wing of Rhyphus (Fig. 497), which is very generalized in structure, except that vein III is only three-branched, while in cer- tain still more generalized forms it is five-branched (e.g., Protoplasa, Fig. 504; and Psychoda, Fig. 500). In the figures of wings in this chapter both the veins and the cells are numbered. The numbers outside of the margin of the wing refer to the veins ; those within, to the cells, except when otherwise indicated by a dotted line or by an arrow. It should be remembered that each cell bears the same num- ber as the vein that forms its front margin when the wings are spread. When a cell is divided by a cross-vein the two parts are numbered ist and 2d. Thus in Rhyphus, cell V 2 is divided, and the parts are designated as the ist cell V 2 and the 2d cell V 2 (Fig. 497, ist V a , 2d V 2 ). A cross-vein is marked cv. In the Diptera veins IV and VI are not developed. Vein I ex- tends along the costal margin of the wing; it usually ends somewhere near the apex of the wing; in Rhyphus it ends at the tip of vein IIL+s (Fig. 497). In some families it extends entirely around the wing; it is then called the ambient vein. Vein II is simple. Vein III is typi- cally five-branched ; but the number of branches is usually reduced to 422 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. four or to three. Vein V is three-branched in the more generalized forms. Vein VII is two-branched. Vein VIII is usually merely a concave fold just behind vein VII and parallel with that vein ; it is represented in most of the figures of wings by a dotted line. Vein IX is usually present; and sometimes vein XI also exists. One of the most marked features in the specialization of the wings of Diptera is a tendency of the veins to coalesce from the margin of the wing towards the base. This is illustrated by the wing of Conops (Fig. 496). In this genus veins IIL+s and V J+2 coalesce at the mar- gin of the wing; veins V 3 and VI Ij coalesce for nearly their entire v, vn, VII, FIG. 497. Wing- of Rhyfhus. length. The result of this coalescence is to cause the free part of vein V 3 to appear like a cross-vein between cells V and the ist cell V. Veins VII 2 and IX also coalesce at the margin of the wing. In a few genera of flies certain longitudinal veins are bent so as to form a sharp angle, and from this angle a spur is developed. Thus in Protoplasa there is a sharp angle near the base of vein III 2+ 6 which bears a spur (Fig. 504, s) ; in Erax a similar spur is formed on vein III 4 (Fig. 559, s) ; and in Pantarbes this spur on vein III 4 is prolonged so as to form a complete cross-vein dividing cell Ills into two parts (Fig. 564). v TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE FAMILIES OF THE DIPTERA. A. Flies in which the abdomen is distinctly segmented, and the two legs of each thoracic segment are not widely separated. Habits various, but the adults do not live parasitically upon either birds or mammals. B. Antennae consisting of more than three segments. (Note that a style or bristle borne by the third segment is not counted as a segment.) DIPTERA. 423 C, Antennae consisting of more than five distinct segments, the segments beyond the second not consolidated ; cell VIII of the wings but slightly narrowed at the margin of the wing, if at all ; palpi usually elongate, and composed of from three to five segments. D. Small moth-like flies, with the body and wings densely clothed with hairs and scales. Wings with from nine to eleven longitudinal veins, but with no cross-veins except sometimes near the base of the wings (Fig. 500). p. 428. PSYCHODID^E. DD. Flies that do not resemble moths in appearance. E. Dorsum of thorax with a distinct V-shaped suture (Fig. 503). p. 429 TIPULID^. EE. Dorsum of thorax without a distinct V-shaped suture. F. Vein V of the wings three-branched ; cell V 2 divided by a cross-vein (Fig. 527). p. 448 RHYPHID^;. FF. Vein V of the wings simple or two-branched ; cell V 2 not divided by a cross-vein. G. Wings with a network of fine lines near the outer and inner margins in addition to the veins (Fig. 506). p. 432 BLEPHAROCERIDJE. GG. Wings without a network of fine lines. H. The margin of the wings and each of the wing- veins fringed with scales (Fig. 512). p. 437. CULICID^E. HH. The wing-veins with or without a fringe of hairs, but without a fringe of flat scales. I. Anal veins entirely wanting; vein V wanting or at most represented by a single unbranched fold (Fig. 522). p. 444 CECIDOMYIID^E. II. Anal veins present or represented by folds ; vein V present or at least represented by a fold which is usually branched. J. Ocelli present. K. Antennae shorter than the thorax; legs comparatively short and stout ; coxae not un- usually long, p. 449 BIBIONID^;. KK. Antennae usually longer than the thorax ; legs slender, and with greatly elongate coxae (Fig. 518). p. 442 MYCETOPHILID^E. JJ. Ocelli absent. K. Antennae short, not clothed with long hairs, 424 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. and with most of the segments wider than long (Fig. 533) ; wings very broad (Fig. 534). p. 451 SIMULIID^E. KK. Antennae either bushy, being densely clothed with long hairs or slender with nar- row segments ; wings narrow or moderately broad. L. Wing-veins well developed on all parts of the wing. M. Vein IIIi ending at or near the end of the second third of the costal margin. p. 449 ORPHNEPHILID^;. MM. Vein IIIi ending on the outer margin of the wing (Fig. 509). p. 436. . DixiD-^E. LL. Wing-veins much stouter near the costal margin of the wing than elsewhere (Fig. 517). p. 440 CHIRONOMID^;. CC. Antennae either consisting of four or five distinct segments or consisting of five or more segments, with those beyond the second more or less closely consolidated so as to appear as a single segment consisting of several subsegments (Figs. 489, 490, 492, and 537) ; cell VIII closed by the coalescence of the tips of veins VII 2 and IX, or greatly narrowed at the margin of the wing ; palpi rarely elongate, and composed of from one to three segments. D. Antennas consisting of four or five distinct segments; empodia wanting or bristle-like. E. Vein Ills not curved forward towards the costal margin of the wing (Fig. 559). p. 460 ASILID^E. EE. Vein III 5 curved forward towards the costal margin of the wing (Fig. 561). p. 461 MIDAID^. DD. Antennas consisting of five or more segments, but with those beyond the second more or less closely consolidated ; empodia resembling pulvilli in form (Fig. 495). E. The branches of vein III crowded together near the costal margin of the wing, and the first cell V s unusually short and broad (Fig. 545). p. 455 STRATIOMYIID^E. EE. Venation of wings normal. F. The alulets large, p. 453 TABANID^E. FF. The alulets small or wanting, p. 456 LEPTID/E. BB. Antennas consisting of not more than three segments ; the DIPTERA. 425 third segment either with or without a style or bristle, but not divided into subsegments. C. Antennae consisting apparently of a single globular segment bearing a long bristle ; wings with some stout veins near the costal margin and other weaker ones extending across the wing unconnected by cross-veins (Fig. 581). p. 475 . PHORID.. CC. Flies that do not present the type of venation represented by Figure 581. D. Cells V and first V 3 not separated (see Fig. 571 for an ex- ample of this type). E. Vein III with a knot-shaped swelling at the point of separation of veins III 2 + 3 and III 4 + 5; the cross-vein 1II-V at or near this swelling; no suture immediately above the antennae, p. 467 DOLICHOPODID/E. EE. Vein III with or without a swelling at the point of separation of veins III 2 + 3 and Ilh + s; the cross-vein III-V more remote from base of wing; a suture immedi- ately above the antennae, p. 479 MUSCID^E. DD. Cells V and V 2 separate. E. Vein III four-branched. F. Venation intricate, due to an unusual anastomosing of the veins (Fig. 555). p. 459 NEMISTRINID^E. FF. Venation not of the type represented by Figure 555. G. Vertex of head distinctly hollowed out between the eyes (Fig. 557); eyes never contiguous, p. 460. ASILID/E. GG. Vertex of head not hollowed out between the eyes; eyes often contiguous in males. H. Alulets very large, p. 458 ACROCERID.E. HH. Alulets small or rudimentary. I. Cell V 3 present. J. Vein Ills ending before the apex of the wing (Fig. 562). p. 462 APIOCERID/E. JJ. Vein Ills not ending before the apex of the wing. K. Empodia pulvilliform, i.e., with three mem- branous lobes beneath the tarsal claws (Fig. 495). p. 456 LEPTID^E. KK. With only two membranous lobes beneath the tarsal claws, p. 464 THEREVID^E. II. Cell V 3 obliterated by the coalescence of veins V 3 and VII,. 426 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. J. Third segment of antennae without bristle or style ; vein V: ending at or before the apex of the wing (Fig. 568). p. 465 ..... SCENOPINID^E. JJ. Third segment of antennae usually with bristle or style ; vein Vi ending beyond the apex of the wing. K. Vein VII 2 extending free to the margin of the wing or coalesced with vein IX for a short distance (Fig. 564). p. 463 ..... BOMBYLID^. KK. Vein VII 2 joining vein IX far from the margin of the wing, often extending towards the base of the wing (Fig. 569). p. 466. EMPIDID^E. EE. Vein III with not more than three branches. F. Wings lanceolate, and with no cross veins except at the base (Fig. 572). p. 469 .............. LONCHOPTERID.'E. FF. Wings not of the type represented by Figure 572. G. Flies with a very small head ; with the thorax and abdomen inflated, giving the body a hunchback-like appearance, and with the alulets very large. The empodia pulvilliform, i.e., with three membranous lobes beneath the tarsal claws, p. 458 ....... ACROCERID.. GG. Head of ordinary size or very large ; form of thorax and abdomen various; alulets either large or small. The empodia not pulvilliform, i.e., only two membra- nous lobes beneath the tarsal claws. H. Vein VII 2 appearing as a cross-vein or curved back towards the base of the wing (Figs. 569, 588). I. Antennae with a terminal style or arista, p. 466. II. Antennae with a dorsal arista. J. Proboscis rudimentary ; mouth-opening small ; palpi wanting, p. 477 .............. QESTRID/E. JJ. Proboscis not rudimentary ; palpi present. K. Head with a suture immediately above the antennae through which the ptilinum is pro- truded and withdrawn (Fig. 587). p. 479. MUSCID^E. KK. Head without such suture, p. 466. HH. Vein VII 2 not coalesced with vein IX to such an DIPTERA. 427 extent as to cause the free part to appear like a cross-vein. I. Antenna with a terminal style or bristle. J. Antenna with a terminal bristle, p. 474. PLATYPEZID/E. JJ. Antenna with a terminal style. K. Front with grooves or a depression beneath the antennae, p. 476 CONOPID^E. KK. Front convex beneath the antennae. p. 47 SYRPHID/E. II. Antenna with dorsal bristle. J. Head extremely large, and with nearly the en- tire surface occupied by the eyes (Fig. 577). p. 473 PIPUNCULID^E. JJ. Head not of the type represented by Figure 577- K. Wings with a vein-like thickening, the spu- rious vein, between veins III and V (Fig. 574). p. 470 SYRPHID^E. KK. Wings without a spurious vein. L. Front with grooves or a depression beneath the antennae, p 476 CONOPID^E. LL. Front convex beneath the antennae. p. 470 SYRPHID^E. AA. Flies in which the abdomen is indistinctly segmented, and the two legs of each segment are widely separated by the broad ster- num. The adults live parasitically upon birds, mammals, or the Honey-bee. B. Compound eyes present ; wings present or absent, p. 487. HlPPOBOSCID^E. BB. Both compound eyes and wings absent. C. Halteres present ; tarsal claws of ordinary form. Adults parasite upon bats. p. 489 NYCTERIBIID^E. CC. Halteres absent; last segment of tarsus with a pair of comb- like appendages, p. 489 BRAULID^E. Suborder ORTHORRHAPHA (Or-thor'rha-pha). The Straight-seamed Flies, To this suborder belong those families of flies in which the pupa escapes from the larval skin through a T-shaped 428 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. opening, which is formed by a lengthwise split on the back near the head-end and a crosswise split at the front end of this (Fig. 498). In a few members of this suborder (i.e., some of the Cecidomyiidae) the pupa escapes FlG - 49S - through a crosswise split between the seventh and eighth abdominal segments. The pupae are usually either naked or enclosed in the last larval skin, the puparium ; but the pupae of some of the gall-gnats, Cecidomyiidae, are enclosed in cocoons. The adult flies do not possess a frontal lunule. See footnote page 416. Family PSYCHODID,E (Psy-chod'i-dae). The Moth-like Flies. There may be found frequently upon windows and on the lower surface of the foliage of trees small flies which have the body and wings densely clothed with hair and which resemble tiny moths in appear- ance. The wings are broad, and when at rest slope at the sides in a roof-like manner or are held horizontally in such a way as to give the FlG 499 _ A insect a triangular outline (Fig. 499). moth-Hkefly. The moth-like appearance of these insects is sufficient to distinguish them from all other flies. The venation of the (II V1I 2 FIG. 500 Wing of a moth-like fly. DIPTERA. 4 2 9 wings (Fig. 500) is also very peculiar. All of the longitu- dinal veins separate near the base of the wing except veins III a and III 3 and veins V s and V 2 . In some forms veins III 4 and III 6 are distinct, as shown in the figure ; in others they coalesce completely, so that radius is only four-branched. In this case there is only a single vein between the two forked veins. The antennae are long and slender, and are clothed with whorls of hairs (Fig. 501). Those of the male are longer; and in the species figured the two basal segments are clothed with scales like those of the Lepidoptera. Scales of this form occur also on the wings, palpi, and legs of certain species. Only a few of the American species have been described ; these have been Fin. 501. Antennfe of Psy- placed in the genus Psychoda ; the choda. m, antenna of male and the second segment of the early Stages of none of them have same more enlarged ;/, an- * tenna of female and the tip been observed. The larvae of some enlarged. European species inhabit cow-dung, and others live in water. They have a pair of spiracles at each end of the body. As regards the structure of their wings these flies are very distinct from all others. The pre-anal area, that part lying in front of vein VIII, presents an extremely generalized form. This is shown by the outline of the wing (a line drawn lengthwise of the wing through its centre will divide it into two similar parts), the small extent to which the veins coalesce, and the fact that the maximum number of veins is present. On the other hand, the anal area is so reduced as to be barely represented. The dotted line in the figure represents the position of what is left of the anal furrow (i.e., vein VIII). Family TlPULlD.-E (Ti-pu'li-dse). The Crane-flies. The crane-flies are mosquito-like in form ; but they are usually very much larger than mosquitoes. The body is long and slender, the wings narrow, and the legs very 430 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. long (Fig. 502). This family includes the larger members of that series of flies in which the antennae are thread-like ; but it also includes some species that are not larger than certain mosquitoes. The most distinctive feature of crane- flies is the presence of a transverse V-shaped suture on the dorsal side of the mesothorax (Fig. 503). FIG. 503. Tho- raxof acrane- fly showing the V-shaped suture. FIG. 502. A crane-fly. The wings are long and narrow. In a few genera vein III is five-branched, and the branches separate near the middle of the wing (Fig. 504) ; but usually the number of vn, FIG. 504. Wing of Pratoplasa fitchii. (After Osten Sacken.) branches is reduced to three or four; and those that remain distinct separate near the apex of the wing (Fig. 505). Cell V 2 is divided into two parts by a cross-vein ; the branches of vein VII like those of vein III separate near the distal end of the wing ; and the margin of the wing is strengthened by an ambient vein. DIPTERA. 43 1 The structure of the ovipositor is also quite distinctive, being composed of two pairs of long, horny, pointed valves. These are fitted for depositing the eggs in the ground, or in other firm substances. The larvae of most species live in the ground ; and some of them destroy grass and grain by gnawing the young plants just below the surface of the soil. Those of other species live in various situations, as in water, in decaying wood, in fungi, and even on the leaves of plants. The larvae FIG. 505. Wing of Tipula abdominalis. of this family have either a single pair of spiracles situated at the hind end of the body, or they have two pairs, one at each end of the body. The pupae are not enclosed in a puparium, and bear transverse rows of hairs, bristles, or spines, which enable them to work their way out from the earth when about to transform. Crane-flies often appear in great numbers, flying over meadows and pastures. But in most cases their power of flight does not seem to be well developed ; for they fly slowly, and only a short distance at a time. Some species, however, sustain themselves in the air for long periods. This is especially true of some of the smaller species ; which often collect in swarms at twilight, forming a small cloud, and dancing up and down like some of the midges. But even with these the flight is poor compared with that of the more specialized families, as the Syrphidae or the Muscidse. Their ability to walk is also poor ; for they use their long legs awkwardly, as if they were in the way. This has sug- gested the rhyme : " My six long legs, all here and there, Oppress my bosom with despair." 43 2 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. Not only are the legs of crane-flies poorly fitted for loco, motion, but they are so feebly attached to the body that they are easily broken off ; however, the loss of a few legs does not seem to be a serious matter to one of these insects. Yet from what we know of the laws of development we are forced to believe that the peculiar form of the legs has been attained in order to fit them to perform better some impor- tant function. It may be that the great length of the legs is correlated with the unusual length of the abdomen and ovipositor, and enables the insect to oviposit in a better manner than would otherwise be possible. When about to lay her eggs, the female stands nearly upright and, bringing the abdomen at right angles to the surface of the earth, thrusts the ovipositor into the ground. After placing one or two eggs in the hole thus made, she moves forward a few steps and repeats the operation. Family BLEPHAROCERID^: (Bleph-a-ro-cer'i-dae). The Net-winged Midges. The net-winged midges are extremely remarkable in- sects; for in certain respec's the structure of the adults is very peculiar, and the larvae appear much more like Crusta- ceans than like Insects. The adults are mosquito-like in form ; but they differ from all other insects in having the wings marked by a net- work of fine lines which extend in various directions and are not influenced at all by the veins of the wing (Fig. 506); they are, however, quite constant in their position in the species that we have studied. When a wing is examined with a microscope, the fine lines are seen to be slender thickenings extending along the courses of slight folds in the wing. The significance of these folds is evident when a net-winged midge is observed in the act of issuing from its pupa-skin. When the wing is first pulled out of the wing-sheath of the pupa, that part of DIPTERA. 433 it which is crossed by the fine lines is plaited somewhat like a fan and folded over the other portion. By this means the wing, which is fully developed before the adult emerges, is packed within the wing-sheath of the pupa, which is much shorter and narrower than the wing. When the wing is 4+S VII, FIG. 506. Wing of Blepharocera. finally unfolded, it does not become perfectly flat, but slight, alternating elevations and depressions remain, show- ing the positions of the former folds, a permanent record of the unique history of the wings of these insects. Ordinarily the wings of insects, while still in the wing- sheaths of the pupa, are neither longer nor wider than the wing-sheaths, but expand after the adult emerges from the pupa skin. Usually it takes considerable time for the wings to expand and become fit for flight ; and during this interval the insect is in an almost helpless condition. In certain caddice-flies that emerge from swiftly-flowing water, the time required for the expansion of the wings has been reduced to the minimum (see pp. 189, 190). In the net- winged midges, which also emerge from swiftly-flowing water, the difficulty is met by the wings reaching their full development before the adult leaves the pupa-skin. It is only necessary when the adult emerges from the water that it should unfold its wings to be ready for flight. The members of this family have three simple eyes. Each compound eye is divided into two parts: an upper half, in which the ocelli are very large ; and a lower half, in 434 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. which the ocelli are small. The antennae are thread-like, but are not furnished with whorls of long hairs (Fig. 507). The legs are very long. On the dorsum of the meso- thorax there is on each side, beginning just in front of the base of the wing, a well-marked suture, like that of the crane-flies; but the two do not meet so as to form a continuous V-shaped suture as in the Tipulidae. In some species at least there are two kinds of females, which differ somewhat in the shape of the FIG. 507. head. These two forms also differ in habits, one being blood-sucking, the other feeding upon nectar. The adults may be found resting on the foliage of shrubs and trees on the margins of mountain-brooks, or dancing in the spray of waterfalls. The immature forms of these insects are even more wonderful than are the adults. The larvae live in water, in swiftly-flowing streams, where the water flows swiftest. We have observed the transformations of Blepharocera capitata (Bleph-a-roc'e-ra cap-i-ta'ta), which is abundant in some of the ravines near Ithaca, N. Y. The larvae of this species are readily seen on account of their black color, and are apt to attract attention on account of their strange form (Fig. 508, a). At first sight the body appears to consist of only seven segments, but careful examina- tion reveals the presence of smaller segments alternating with these. Each of the larger segments except the last bears a pair of conical, leg-like appen- dages. On the ventral side of the body (Fig. 508, b] each of the seven larger segments except the last bears a sucker, the cavity of which extends far into the body, and each FIG. 508. Blepharocera . a, larva, dor- sal view ; b, larva, ventral view ; c, puparium. DIPT ERA. 435 of these segments except the first bears two tufts of tracheal gills ; but those of the last segment are united. The head, which forms the front end of the first of the seven larger divisions, bears a pair of slender antennae ; each of these consists of a very short basal segment and two long segments; at the tip of the last of these there is a pair of minute appendages and a bristle. The suture between the head and the remaining part of the first division is best seen on the ventral side of the body. On the dorsal side a suture may be seen dividing the last division into two segments. The pupa-state is passed in the same place as the larval. Like the larvae the pupae are very conspicuous on account of their black color, and are apt to occur like the larvae closely clustered together. The pupa is not enclosed in the larval skin, and differs greatly in form from the larva. On the dorsal side the skin is hard, forming a convex scale over the body (Fig. 508, c) ; and the thorax bears a pair of breath- ing-organs ; on the ventral side the skin is very delicate, soft, and transparent ; so that the developing legs and wings may be easily seen when the insect is removed from the rock. The pupae cling to the rock by means of six suckers, three on each side near the edge of the lower surface of the abdo- men ; and so firmly do they cling that it is difficult to re- move specimens without breaking them. We have watched the midges emerge from their pupa- skins and escape from the water. The pupae occurred in groups so as to form black patches on the rocks. Each one was resting with its head down stream. Each midge on emerging forced its way out through a transverse rent be- tween the thorax and abdomen. It then worked its body out slowly, and in spite of the swift current held it vertical. The water covering the patch of pupae varied from one fourth to one half inch in depth. In the shallower parts the adult had no trouble in working its way to the surface still clinging to the pupa-skin by its very long hind legs. THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. While still anchored by its legs the midge rests on the sur- face of the water for one or two seconds and unfolds its wings ; then freeing its legs it takes flight. The adults emerging from the deeper water were swept away by the current before they had a chance to take wing. The time required for a midge to work its way out of the pupa-skin varied from three to five minutes. Family DIXID.E (Dix'i-dae). The Dixa-midges. These midges closely resemble mosquitoes in size and form ; but they are easily distinguished by the venation of their wings (Fig. 509). ir VII, IX VII, FIG. 509. Wing of Dixa. The wing-veins are not furnished with scales, and are distinct over the entire surface of the wing; vein I is pro- longed into an ambient vein ; vein II is well developed, but is short, ending in the margin of the wing near its middle, ana before the first fork of vein III ; vein III is four-branched ; vein V is two-branched ; cell V 2 is not divided by a cross- vein ; and vein III, extends parallel to the mar- gin of the wing to a point on the outer end of the wing. The antennae (Fig. 510) are six- teen-jointed, and differ but slightly in the two sexes ; the legs are very long and slender ; and he caudal end of the abdomen of the male is enlarged. FlG> 5IO DIPTERA. 437 The family includes only a single genus, Dixa. We have found the adult midges common on rank her- bage, growing in a swampy place, in a shady forest. Family CULICID^: (Cu-lic'i-dae). The Mosquitoes. The form of mosquitoes is so well known that it would be unnecessary to characterize the Culicidae were it not that there are certain mosquito-like insects that are liable to be mistaken for members of this family. The mosquitoes are small flies, with the abdomen long and slender, the wings narrow, the antennae plumose in the males (Fig. 511), and usu- ally with a long, slender, but firm proboscis. The thorax lacks the transverse V-shaped su-ture characteristic of the crane-flies ; and vein V of the wings is only two-branched (Fig. 512). But the most distinctive feature FlG - s" ; -Antennae of mosquitoes. , male ; of mosquitoes is a fringe of scale-like hairs /.female. on the margin of the wing and also, in all known American forms, on each of the wing-veins. VII, VII, FIG. 512. Wing of Culex. The larvae of mosquitoes, so far as they are known, are aquatic. But it is probable that some species breed in the ground, for mosquitoes occur in arid regions far from water. The transformations of those species with aquatic larvae are easily observed. The immature forms may be found in 43^ THE STUDY OF INSECTS. pools of stagnant water, in watering-troughs, and in ex- posed receptacles of rain-water. The long, slender eggs are laid side by side in a boat- shaped mass, on the surface of the water (Fig. 513). They FIG. 513. A glass of water containing egffjs, larvae, and pupae of mosquitoes. hatch in a few days, and the larvae escape from the lower ends into the water. The larvce are well known, and are commonly called " wigglers," a name suggested by their wriggling motion as they swim through the water. The larva (Fig. 514, a] has a large head and thorax and a slender abdomen. The next to the last abdominal segment bears a breathing-tube ; and when the larva is at rest it hangs head down- ward in the water, with the opening of this tube at the surface (Fig. 513). At the end of this tube there is a rosette of plate-like lobes (Fig. 515, a), which, floating on the surface of the water, keeps the larva in posi- tion when at rest. The larva grows rapidly, and after a few FIG. 514. Mosquitoes. <7, larva, 6, pupa. DIPTEKA. 439 molts changes into a club-shaped pupa, the head and thorax being greatly enlarged (514, b). With this transformation a remarkable change takes place in the respi- ratory system. There are now two breath- ing-tubes, and these are borne by the thorax. One of these tubes is represented greatly enlarged by Figure 5i5,/>. At the tail-end of the body there is a pair of leaf- ,. . FIG. 515. a, end of like appendages, with which the insect breathing-tube of larva: i>, breathing-tube of swims ; for the pupae of mosquitoes, and PP a - also of certain midges, differ from the pupae of other insects in being active. The pupa state lasts only a few days ; then the skin splits down the back, and the winged mosquito carefully works itself out and cautiously balances itself on the cast skin, using it as a raft, until its wings are hardened so that it can fly away. The larvae of mosquitoes are doubtless beneficial insects, for they feed on decaying matter in water, and thus act as scavengers ; but the annoyance caused by the bites of the adult females more than counterbalances this good. The males of mosquitoes neither sing nor suck blood ; * they are said to feed on the sweets of flowers. These pests can be repelled by smoke and by certain strong-smelling substances. In regions where they abound it is customary to build smudges in the evening for this purpose ; and sportsmen anoint their faces and hands with aromatic ointments. The best of these is made of mutton tallow scented with camphor and oil of pennyroyal; a mix- ture of oil of tar and oil of pennyroyal is also used. It often happens that plagues of these pests are bred in receptacles of rain-water standing near dwellings ; such re- ceptacles should not be left open unnecessarily. When the breeding-places are ponds of limited extent the larvae and * E. Ficalbi states that he has observed two Italian species in which both sexes suck blood. Bull. Soc. Ent. Ital. 1889, p. 25. 440 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. pupae can be destroyed by pouring a small quantity of kero- sene on the water ; this method of destroying them was first suggested by Mr. L. O. Howard. Family CHIRONOMID.E (Chir-o-nom'i-dse). The Midges. The members of this family are more or less mosquito- like in form. The abdomen is usually long and slender ; the wings narrow ; the legs long and delicate ; and the antenna::, especially in the males, strongly plumose (Fig. 516). In fact many of these insects are commonly mistaken for mosquitoes; but only a few of them can bite, the 516. Antennae of 1-11 onomus. /, female ; greater number being harmless. The midges are most easily distin- guished from mosquitoes by the structure of the wings (Fig. 517). These are furnished with fewer and usually less FIG. in, vu, FIG. 517. Wing of Ckironovnts. distinct veins; and the veins, although sometimes hairy, are not fringed with scale-like hairs. There is a marked contrast between the stouter veins near the costal border of the wing and those on the other parts of the wing, which seem to be fading out. The costal vein is not prolonged into an am- bient vein, beyond the apex of the wing. The name midge has been used in an indefinite way, some writers applying it to any minute fly. It is much better, however, to restrict it to members of this family DIPTERA. 441 except where it has become firmly established as a part of a specific name. The Wheat-midge and the Clover-seed Midge are examples of names of this kind ; it would not be wise to attempt to change these names, although the insects they represent belong to the Gall-gnat family, and hence are not true midges. Midges often appear in large swarms, dancing in the air, especially towards the close of day. Professor Williston states that, over meadows in the Rocky Mountains, he has seen them rise at nightfall in most incredible numbers, pro- ducing a buzzing or humming noise like that of a distant waterfall, and audible for a considerable distance. The larvae are either aquatic or terrestrial ; they have two pairs of spiracles, one at each end of the body, or are furnished with tracheal gills. Some of the pupae are free and active, others are quiescent ; some of the latter remain partially enclosed in the split larval skin. Many of our species belong to the genus Chironomus (Chi-ron'o-mus). These are mosquito-like in form, but vary greatly in size, some being smaller than our common mos- quitoes, and others much larger. The head is small, the snout, comparatively short, and the antennae of the males very bushy. The larvae so far as they are known are aquatic. Many of them are blood-red in color ; and as they live in standing water they are sometimes found in vessels contain- ing rain-water, where they appear like bits of animated red thread. The pupae of this genus, like those of mosquitoes, are active. To the genus Ceratopogon (Cer-a-to-po'gon) belong the small midges commonly known as punkies. Of these there are many species, which vary greatly in size and color. The body and legs are not as slender as in the preceding genus, and consequently the insects appear much less mos- quito-like. Certain minute species are sometimes very abundant, and extremely annoying on account of their bites. We have found them exceeding troublesome in the Adiron- 44 2 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. dack Mountains. The larvae live under the bark of decaying branches, under fallen leaves, and in sap flowing from wounded trees. Family MYCETOPHILID^; (My-cet-o-phil'i-dse). The Fungus-gnats. These flies are of medium or small size, and more or less mosquito-like in form. They are most easily recognized by the great length of the coxae (Fig. 518, c), and the fact that all the tibiae are furnished with spurs. They also differ from the closely-allied families in lacking, as a rule, whorls of hairs on the an- tennae of the males (Fig. 519), and in possessing ocelli. At first sight considerable varia- tion seems to exist in the venation of the wings as shown in the three wings represented in Figure 520 ; but in reality the variations are comparatively slight. Vein I extends along the margin of the wing to the end of vein III 4+6 . Vein II varies in length. Vein III pre- serves three branches in the more generalized form (Fig. 520, a); in some genera veins III, and III 2+3 coalesce from the apex of the wing backward for a greater or less distance so that the base of vein III 2+3 appears like a cross vein (Fig. 520, b}; this coalescence may be complete, in which case vein III is only two-branched (Fig. 520, c). Vein V is also two-branched. It should be observed that the cross-vein III-V extends more or less obliquely or even lengthwise of the wing ; while the base of vein III 4+6 may extend trans- versely, and then is liable to be mistaken for a cross-vein (Fig. 520, b, c). The flies are often found in great numbers on fungi and in damp places where there is decaying vegetable matter. They are active, and leap as well as fly. DJPTERA. 443 The larvae are gregarious, and live in fungi and in decay- ing vegetable matter. They may be found in the fungi growing on logs and trees, in the vegeta- ble mould among dead leaves, under V^^^^^^r^^ ^ in * x. ^v TV ^"x^ ^""^ """""--^.y Vi+a \ \^->"V 3 I3T bark, and sometimes in cow-dung. They have eight pairs of spiracles. One spe- cies, Sciara mail (Sci'a-ra ma'li), feeds on ripe apples, es- pecially those that have been previously perforated by the Codlin-moth. In this family the larva has a distinct head. The pupa is not enclosed in the skin of the larva ; but in some a VII VIIi Vila VII i FIG. 5 20 - Wings of fungus-gnats. (The drawings are after Winnertz ; the lettering is original.) the transformations are undergone in a delicate cocoon. The larvae of some species of the genus Sciara often attract attention on account of a strange habit they have of sticking together in dense patches. Such assemblages of larvae are frequently found under the bark of trees. But what is more remarkable is the fact that when the larvae are about to change to pupae an assemblage of this kind will march over the surface of the ground, presenting the appear- ance of a serpent-like animal. Such a congregation is com- monly spoken of as a Sciara-army-worm. Examples have been described that were four or five inches wide and ten or twelve feet long, and in which the larvae were piled up from 444 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. four to six deep. The larvae crawl over each other so that the column advances about an inch a minute. Family CECIDOMYIID^E (Cec-i-do-my-i'i-dae). The Gall-gnats. The gall-gnats are minute flies which are extremely delicate in structure. The body and wings are clothed with long hairs, which are easily rubbed off. The antennae are long, sometimes very long, and usually with a whorl of hairs on each seg- ment (Fig. 521); the legs are slender and quite long, but the coxae are not greatly elongate, and the tibiae are without spurs ; the wing-veins (Fig. 522) are greatly reduced in number ; the anal veins being entirely wanting, and vein V wanting or merely FIG. 521. Antennae represented by a slight, unbranched fold, male; f. female', To this family belong the smallest of enlarged more than ,.,..,_. that of the male. the midge-like flies. On account of their minute size, the adult flies are not apt to attract the at- tention of the young student. But the larvae of many FIG. 522. Wing of gall-gnat. species cause the growth of galls on plants ; some of which are sure to be found by any close observer. Other species arrest the growth of the plants they infest, and thus cause DIPTERA. 445 very serious injury; in this way the amount of a crop of grain is often greatly reduced. The larvae are small maggots, with nine pairs of spiracles. Many species are brightly colored, being red, pink, yellow, or orange. In almost every case a larva belonging to this family can be recog- nized as such by the presence of a horny piece on the lower side of the body, be- tween the second and third segments (Fig. FIG. 523. Head-end of . it j 1.1 u t. u larva showing the 523). This piece is called the breast-bone, breast-bone. Its homology and use have not been definitely determined. The different species vary as to the method of under- going their transformation ; in some the pupa is naked ; in others the pupa is enclosed in the dried skin of the larva ; and in still others it is enclosed in a delicate cocoon. One of the most common and conspicuous of the galls made by gall-gnats is the Pine-cone Willow-gall (Fig. 524). This often occurs in great abundance on the tips of twigs of the Heart - leaved Willow (Salix cor data). The gnat that causes the growth of this gall is Cecidomyia strobiloides (Cec-i-do-my'i-a strob-i- loi'des). The gall is a deformed and enlarged bud ; the lengthening of the stem is checked by the injury caused by the larva ; but leaves FIG. 524. The pine-cone wiiiow-gaii. continue to be devel- oped which results in the cone-shaped growth. The larva remains in the heart of the gall throughout the summer and winter, changing to a pupa early in the spring. The adult 446 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. emerges soon afterward, and lays its eggs in the newly- started buds of the willow. There is a guest gall-gnat, Cecidomyia albovittata (C. al- bo-vit-ta'ta), which breeds in large numbers between the leaves composing the Pine-cone Willow-gall. The larvse of this gnat do not seem to interfere in any way with the development of their host, there being abundant food in the gall both for the owner of the gall and for its numerous guests. The Clover-leaf Midge, Cecidomyia trifolii(C. tri-fo'li-i).- The leaflets of white clover are sometimes infested by white or orange-colored ma^- o o gots which fold the two halves of the leaflet together. From one to twenty of these larvae may be found in a single leaflet. When f u 1 1- grown the larvae make cocoons, and undergo FIG. 525. Cecidomyi.Dip!osis resinicola. (From the Author's Report for 1879.) We have found it throughout the Atlantic region from New York to Florida. The larvae live together in considerable o numbers within a lump of resin. They derive their nourish- ment from the abraded bark of the twig ; and the resin exuding from the wound completely surrounds and protects 448 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. them. The transformations are undergone within the lump of resin. After the gnats emerge the empty pupa-skins pro- ject from the lump of resin as shown at the right in Figure 526. In this figure the gnat, a single wing, and a part of the antenna of each sex are represented, all greatly enlarged. Family RHYPHID^E (Rhyph'i-dae). The False Crane-flies. The false crane-flies are so called because they resemble the Tipulidae somewhat in the venation of the wings, the vii, VII, FIG. 527. Wing of Rhyphus. three branches of vein V being preserved, and cell V 2 being divided by a cross- vein (Fig. 527). They lack, however, the V-shaped suture on the thorax that is characteristic of crane-flies ; and differ, also, in having ocelli, and in the structure of the antennae (Fig. 528). The wings are wider than is usual with crane-flies, and the branches of FIG. 528. ve j n in separate nearer the base of the wing than in that family. The adults are mosquito-like insects with spotted wings, which often enter houses, where they are found on windows. We have also observed them in considerable numbers just at nightfall, feeding on sugar which had been placed on DIPTERA. 449 trees to attract moths. They feed on over-ripe fruit and other vegetable substances. The larvae are found in pools and in decaying vegetable matter ; they have two pairs of spiracles, one at each end of the body. The pupge are free. Only four species of false crane-flies have been found in the United States ; these belong to the genus Rliyphus (Rhy'phus). Family ORPHNEPHILID^E (Orph-ne-phil'i-dae). Tlie Solitary-midge. Only a single species of this family, Orphnephila testacea (Orph-neph'i-la tes-ta'ce-a), is known to occur in North America. This is a small fly measuring about one eighth of an inch in length, with a wing-expanse of one third inch. The antennas are short, about as long as the head, and nearly of the same structure in both sexes ; the segments of the antennas except those at the base are slender and are clothed with a few short hairs. The ocelli are wanting'. The o compound eyes are large and meet in front in both sexes. The wing-veins are well developed on all parts of the wing ; vein II ends in the margin of the wing before the end of the basal third ; vein III is two-branched, the first branch ending in the margin at the end of the second third of the wing and the other branch near the apex of the wing ; vein V is two-branched, the branches separating at the end of the basal third of the wing and near the cross-vein III-V ; the fork of vein VII and the cross-vein V-VII are near the end of the basal fourth of the wing. The transformations of this insect are unknown. Family BlBlONlok (Bib i-on'i-dae). TJie March-flies. In these flies the body is comparatively robust, and the legs shorter and stouter than in most of the families with 450 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. thread-like antennae (Fig. 529). The abdomen, however, is much longer than wide. The antennae (Fig. 530) are shorter than the thorax, and composed of short, broad, and closely-pressed-together segments. Although the an- o o FIG. 529. Bibio. FIG. 530. tennse are hairy, they are not furnished with whorls of long hairs in the males, as is the case in most of the preceding families. These insects resemble the fungus-gnats in having ocelli ; but they differ from them in the shortness of the antennas and in the fact that the coxae are not greatly elongate. In this family and the following one the eyes of the males are in many cases contiguous. The venation of the wings of the typical genus is represented by Figure 531. vn, VII, FIG. 531. Wing of Bibio. The adult flies are generally black and red, sometimes yellow. They are most common in early spring ; which has suggested the name March-flies ; but some occur later in the season. The larvae vary in habits ; some species feed on decay- ing vegetable matter, while others attack the roots of grow- ing plants, especially of grass. They have ten pairs of spiracles; which is an unusually large number, as but few insects have more than nine pairs. The pupae are usually free. DIPTERA. 45 J- Family SIMULIID^E (Sim-u-li'i-dae). The Black-flics. The common name, black-flies, given to the members of this family is not distinctive, for there are many species in other families that are of this color ; but like many other names that are descriptive in form, it has come to have a specific meaning distinct from its original one. It is like the word blackberry ; some blackberries are white, and not all berries that are black are blackberries. In this family the body is short and stout (Fig. 532) ; the legs are short, and the tibiae are without spurs. The anten- nas, although composed of many seg- ments, are comparatively short, and taper towards the tip (Fig. 533) ; the segments of the antennae are short and closely pressed together ; they are clothed with fine hairs, but do not bear whorls of long hairs. There are no ocelli. In the males the compound eyes are contiguous, and are composed of two kinds of ocelli, those of one part ofthe eye being much larger than FIG. 532. Siinuliuin. 533- VIIi VIU Vila IX FIG. 534. Wing of Sitmilium. the others. The wings are broad, iridescent, and not clothed with hairs. The veins near the costal border are stout ; those on the other parts of the wing are very weak (Fig- 534)- 452 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The females of many species suck blood and are well- known pests. Unlike mosquitoes and midges, the black-flies like heat and strong light. They are often seen in large numbers disporting themselves in the brightest sunshine. The larvae are aquatic; and usually live in swiftly-flowing streams, clinging to the surface of rocks in rapids or on the brinks of falls. They sometimes occur in such large num- bers as to form a moss-like coating over the rocks. There is a disk-like sucker fringed with little hooks at the caudal end of the body by means of which the larva clings to the rocks; and just back of the head there is a fleshy proleg which ends in a similar sucker fringed with hooks (Fig. 535). By means of these two organs the larva is able to walk with a looping gait similar to that of a measuring-worm. It also has the power of spinning silk from its mouth, which it uses in locomotion. The hooks on the caudal sucker and at the end of the proleg are well adapted to clinging to a thread or to a film of silk o o spun upon the rock to which the larva is clinging. Respiration is accomplished by means of three much-branched tracheal gills which are pushed out from be- tween the last two abdominal segments. The head bears two large fan-shaped organs, which aid in procuring food. The food consists of microscopic plants and bits of tissue of larger plants. When full-grown the larva spins a boot-shaped cocoon within which the pupa state is passed (Fig. 536). This cocoon is firmly fast- ened to the rock upon which the larva has lived or to other cocoons, for they occur in dense masses, forming a carpet- like covering on the rocks. The pupa, like the larva, breathes by tracheal gills ; but in this stage the tracheal gills are FlG- 536 ._ Larva and borne by the prothorax. FIG. 535 Head of larva. coon. DIPTERA. 453 The adult fly, on emerging from the pupa-skin, rises to the surface of the water and takes flight at once. Soon after this, the eggs are laid. We have often watched the flies hovering over the brink of a fall where there was a thin sheet of swiftly-flowing water, and have seen them dart into the water and out again. At such times we have always found the surface of the rock more or less thickly coated with eggs, and have no doubt that an egg is fastened to the rock each time a fly darts into the water. The above account is based on observations made on the Innoxious Black-fly, Simulinm innoxium (Si-mu'li-um in- nox'i-um), which is exceedingly common in the streams about Ithaca, N. Y. This species, fortunately, is not blood- thirsty, for, notwithstanding its great abundance in this locality, we have never known it to bite. The Southern Buffalo-gnat, Simulium pecuarum (S. pec- u-a'rum), of the Mississippi Valley is a terrible pest, which causes the death of many mules and other domestic animals. The popular name of this insect refers to a fancied resem- blance in the shape of the insect when viewed from one side to "that of a buffalo. The Turkey-gnat, Simulium meridionale (S. me-rid-i-o- na'le), closely resembles the preceding in habits, infesting all kinds of domestic animals ; but as it appears at the time that turkeys are setting and causes great injury to this fowl, it is commonly known as the Turkey-gnat. The Adirondack Black-fly, Simulium molestum (S. mo- les'tum), is a scourge in the mountains of the Northeastern States. Family TABANID^: (Ta-ban'i-dae). The Horse-flies. The horse-flies are well-known pests of stock, and are often extremely annoying to man. They appear in sum- mer, are common in woods, and are most abundant in the hottest weather. 454 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. In this family the third segment of the antenna is ringed (Figs. 537, 538) and is never furnished with a distinct style or bristle. The wing-veins (Fig. 539) are evenly distributed over the wing, as the branches of vein III are not crowded together as in the follow- ing family ; the costal vein extends completely around the wing ; the alulets are large. The flight of these flies is very powerful ; they are able to outstrip the swiftest horse. The males feed on the nectar of flowers and on The mouth-parts of the female are fitted for piercing the skin and sucking the blood of men and quadrupeds ; the FIG. 537. Antenna of Tabanus. FIG. 538. Antenna of sWCCt Sap. (.hrysops. FIG. 539. Wing of Tabamis. females, however, also feed on the sweets of plants when they cannot obtain blood. The larvae are carnivorous ; many live in the earth ; others live in water. They feed on various small animals; some upon snails, others upon the larvae of insects. In most cases they have a single pair of spiracles, which is situated at the hind end of the body; some have a pair of spiracles at each end of the body. The pupa is not enclosed in the skin of the larva. D1PTERA. 455 FIG. 540. Tabanus at- ratus. FIG. 541. tlirysops niger. The larger species, as well as some of moderate size, belong to the genus Tabamis (Ta-ba'nus), of which nearly one hundred American spe- cies are known. One of the most common of these is the Mourning Horse-fly, Tabamis atratus (T. a-tra'tus). This insect is of an uniform black color throughout, except that the body may have a bluish tinge (Fig. 540). To the genus CJirysops (Chry'sops) belong the smaller and more common horse-flies with banded wings (Fig. 541). Nearly fifty North American species of this genus have been described. Family STRATIOMYHD.E (Strat-i-o-my-i'i-dae). The Soldier-flies. The soldier-flies are so called on account of the bright- colored stripes with which some of the species are marked. In the more typical mem- bers of this family the abdo- men is broad and greatly flattened (Fig. 542), and the wings when at rest lie parallel upon each other over the ab- domen. But in some genera the abdomen is narrow and considerably elongate. The antennae vary greatly in some genera the third segment is long and con- sists of several quite distinct rings (Fig. 543) ; in others it is short with but few indistinctly-separated rings and with a bristle (Fig. 544), as in the true true short-horned flies. The most distinctive characteristic is the peculiar vena FIG. 542. Stratio- inyia. in form FIG 543. FIG. 544. 456 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. tion of the wings (Fig. 545). The branches of vein III are crowded together near the costal border of the wing ; and ir m, m, VIIi FIG. 545. Wing of Stratiouiyia. the first cell V, is unusually short and broad ; the branches of Vein V and vein VII, are comparatively weak. These flies are found on flowers and leaves, especially in the vicinity of water and in bogs and marshes. The larvae live in water, earth or decaying wood. Some are carnivorous, others feed on FIG. 546 Pup.irium of Odon- , . ,-r., decaying vegetable matter. I hey have six or seven pairs of spiracles ; the pupa state is passed within the skin of the larva (Fig. 546). Family LEPTID^: (Lep'ti-dae). The Snipe-flics. These trim-appearing flies have rather long legs, a cone- shaped abdomen tapering towards the hind end (Fig. 547), and sometimes a downward-projecting proboscis, which with the form of the body and legs has sug- gested the name snipe-flies. Some members of the family, however, are remarkable for their re- semblance to certain Ichneumon-flies, the abdo- men being long and somewhat compressed. The body is naked or hairy, but it is not clothed with strong bristles. Frequently the hairy covering, though short, is very dense and is of strongly-contrasting colors. Three ocelli are present. The antennae vary greatly in form ; in some FIG. 547. Chrysopila thoracica. D1PTERA. 457 genera the third segment consists of several subseg- ments, which may be quite distinct (Fig. 548) ; in others the antennae are only three-jointed, and the third segment bears a style or bristle (Fig. 549). The proboscis is usually short, only a few members of the family having it long like the bill of a snipe. The wings are broad, and when at rest are 1 held half open. The empodia are pulvilliform ; that is, FIG. 548. Antenna of Xylo- phagus and, /, palpus. FIG. 549. Antenna of Chrysopila., there are three, nearly equal, membranous pads beneath the tarsal claws (Fig. 550). Although the form of the antennae in certain genera closely resembles that characteristic of the long-horned flies (Nematocera), the form of the palpus even in these cases (Fig. 548, /) is that characteristic of the short-horned flies (Brachycera), being only two-jointed and not pendulous. The venation of the wings is comparatively generalized (Figs. 551, 552), each of the principal veins usually extend- ing distinct from the others; but in some veins VII 2 and IX coalesce at the margin of the wing (Fig. 552). Vein III is four-branched ; the branches of vein V are connected with adjacent veins only by cross-veins ; and cell V, is divided by a cross-vein. The flies are predaceous. They may be found about low bushes and on tall grass. They are somewhat sluggish, and, therefore, easily caught. The larvae also are predaceous. Some live in earth, 458 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. decaying wood, or dry sand ; others live in moss or in water. They have either two pairs of spiracles, one at each end of VIIj+IX VUi FIG. 551. Wing of Leptis. the body, or are furnished with tracheal gills. The last segment of the body has a transverse cleft, both above and TII 4 FIG. 552. Wing of Xyhfhagus. below, which is furnished above with two processes. The pupae are free. The family is of moderate size; about seventy North American species have been described. Family ACROCERID^E (Ac-ro-cer'i-dae). 77/i? Small-headed Flies. These flies are easily recognized by the unusually small head, the large humpbacked thorax, the in- flated abdomen, and the very large alulets (Fig. 553). The head is composed almost entirely of FIG. 553. Ptero- J ia miseiia. eyes, and in some genera is minute. The DIPT ERA. 459 eyes are contiguous in both sexes. The antennae are two- or three-jointed, and are furnished with a style or bristle in some genera, in others not. The venation of the wings varies greatly in the different genera. We are unable, there- fore, to point out distinctive features drawn from these organs. The figure given (Fig. 554) represents a single genus rather than the family. v, ^_^__j - viz, + ix \vTvnr~" FIG. 554. Wing of Eulonchus The flies are generally slow and feeble in their move- ments. In some species that feed upon flowers the pro- boscis is very long, sometimes exceeding the body in length. Other species take no nourishment in the adult state, and have no proboscis. The empodia are pulvilliform. " The larvae are apparently chiefly parasitic, and in the few species in which they have been observed are parasitic on spiders or their cocoons, in the former cases the young larvae living within the abdomen." (Williston.) Family NEMISTRINID^E (Nem-is-trin'i-dae). The Tangle-veined Flies. The members of this family are of medium size ; some of them resemble horse-flies, and others bee-flies. They can be recognized by the peculiar venation of the wings, there beingr an unusual amount of anastomosing of the o <~> veins (Fig. 555), which gives the wings a very characteristic appearance. 460 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The antennae are small and short ; the third segment is simple and furnished with a slender, jointed, terminal style. The proboscis is usually long, sometimes very long, and vn, FIG. 555. Wing of Rhynckocephalus sackeni. fitted for sucking nectar from flowers. Only four North American species have been described ; and these are all rare. Family ASILID^: (A-sil'i-dae). The Robber-flies. These are mostly large flies, and some of them are very large. The body is usually elongate, with a very long, slender abdomen (Fig. 556); but some species are quite stout, resembling bumblebees in form. This resemblance is often increased by a dense clothing of black and yellow hairs. In this and the following family the vertex of the head FIG. 556. Erax afiicalis destroying a cotton-worm. (From the Au- thor's Report for 1879.) FIG. 557. Head of robber-fly. FIG. 558. is hollowed out between the eyes (Fig. 557). In this family the proboscis is pointed and does not bear fleshy lips at the DIPTERA. 461 tip. The antennae project forward in a prominent manner. They are three-jointed, and with or without a terminal style. The style when present sometimes appears like one or two additional segments (Fig. 558). Vein III 4 (Fig. 559) does not curve forward toward the costal margin of the wing as in the following family. Cell V 3 is present, but is usually closed by the coalescence of the FIG. 559. Wing of Erax. tips of veins V 3 and VII,. The tips of veins VII 2 and IX may or may not coalesce for a short distance. The robber- flies are extremely predaceous. They not only destroy other flies, but powerful insects, as bumblebees, tiger-beetles, and dragon-flies, fall prey to them ; they will also feed upon larvae. They are common in open fields and are as apt to alight on the ground as on elevated objects. The larvae live chiefly in the ground or in decaying wood, where they prey upon the larvae of beetles ; some, however, are supposed to feed upon the roots of plants. The pupae are free. The family includes a large number of genera and species. Family MlDAID.E (Mi-da'i-dae). The Midas-flics. The Midas-flies rival the robber-flies in size, and quite closely resemble them in appearance. As in that family, the vertex of the head is hollowed out between the 462 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. eyes ; but these flies can be distinguished by the form of the proboscis, which bears a pair of fleshy lobes at the tip, by the form of the antennae, which are long and clubbed at the tip (Fig. 560), and by the peculiar venation of the wings (Fig. 561), vein V, ter- minating at or before the apex of the wing, and the branches of vein III coalescing near the apex of the wing in an unusual way. FIG. 5 6o. The adult flies are predaceous. The family is a small one ; but a large proportion of the species occur on this continent. ISt III Y.+* VIIj+IX FIG. 561. Wing of Rlidas. Family ApiOCERiD/E (A-pi-o-cer'i-dae). The Apiocerids (A-pi-oc' e-rids). This family includes only a small number of species, ,111,+;, VIIi. FIG. 562. Wing of Apiocera. (After Williston.) which are rare and occur in the far West. They are rather large and elongate, and are found upon flowers. DIPT ERA. 463 The head is not hollowed out between the eyes ; the ocelli are present ; the antennae are furnished with a short, simple style. Vein III is usually four-branched, but some- times it is only three-branched ; all of the branches of vein III end before the apex of the wing (Fig. 562); cell V 3 is present, but closed by the coalescence of veins V 3 and VII, at the margin of the wing ; and cell V 2 is divided by a cross- vein. The empodia are wanting. Family BOMBYLIID^E (Bom-by-li'i-dae). The Bee-flies. These flies are mostly of medium size, some are small, others are rather large. In some the body is short and broad and densely clothed with long, delicate hair (Fig. 563). Other species resemble the horse-flies somewhat in appearance, especially in the dark color or markings of the wings ; but FlG - s 6 s-- these can be distinguished from the horse-flies by the form of the antennae and the venation of the wings. The antennae are usually short ; they are three-jointed ; the third segment is not ringed ; the style is sometimes present and sometimes wanting. The ocelli are present. The proboscis is sometimes very long and slender, and sometimes short and furnished with fleshy lips at the ex- tremity. Vein III of the wings (Fig. 564) is four-branched ; cell III 3 is sometimes divided by a cross-vein ; cell V 3 is obliter- ated by the coalescence of veins V 3 and VII, ; in a few genera cell V, is also obliterated by the coalescence of veins V, and V 2 ; cell VIII is narrowly open, or is closed at or near the border of the wing. The alulets are small or of moderate size. The adult flies feed on nectar, and are found hovering over blossoms, or resting on sunny paths, sticks or stones; they rarely alight on leaves. 4^4 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The larvae are parasitic, infesting hymenopterous and lepidopterous larvae and pupae and the egg-sacs of Orthop- tera. The pupae are free. V, FIG. 564. Wing of Pantarbes capita. The family is a large one, including many genera and species. Family THEREVID/E (The-rev'i-dae). Tlie Stiletto-flics. With the flies of this family the head is transverse, being nearly as wide as the thorax ; and the abdomen is long and tapering, suggesting the name stiletto-flies. These flies are small or of medium size ; they are hairy or bristly. The antennae are three-jointed ; the third segment is simple, and usually bears a terminal style ; but this is sometimes want- ing. Three ocelli are present. The legs are slender and bristly; the empodia are wanting. Vein III of the wings (Fig. 565) is four-branched, and the last branch (vein II I 6 ) terminates beyond the apex of the wing ; the branches of vein V are all separate ; cell VIII is closed near the border of the wing; the 2d cell III and cell V are long. The adult flies are predaceous ; and conceal themselves among the leaves of low bushes or settle on the ground in sandy spots, waiting for other insects upon which they prey. The larvae are long and slender, and the body is appar- ently composed of nineteen segments. They are found in DIPTERA. 465 earth, fungi, and decaying wood. They feed on decaying animal and vegetable matter and are said to be predaceous also. The pupae are free. IIIj VII 2 +IX FIG. 565. Wing of Therera. The family is a comparatively small one, including but few genera and species. Family SCENOPINID.E (Scen-o-pin'i-dae). The Window-flics, The window-flies are so-called because the best-known species are found almost exclusively on windows ; but the conclusion that these are the most common flies found on windows should not be drawn from this name ; for such is not the case. These flies are of medium size, our most common species measuring one-fourth inch in length. They are usually black, and are not clothed with bristles. The thorax is prominent, and the abdomen is flattened and somewhat bent down, so that the body when viewed from the side presents a humpbacked appearance (Fig. 566). When at rest, the wings lie parallel, one over the other, on the abdomen ; when in this position they are very inconspicuous. There are three ocelli. The antennae are three-jointed ; the first and second segments are short, the third is long and bears neither a style nor a bristle (Fig. 567). FIG 66 FIG 466 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. The venation of the wings is represented by Figure 568. Vein III is four-branched ; cells V, and V 3 are both obliter- ated by the coalescence of the veins that bound them ; cell VIII is closed at a considerable distance before the margin ; and the 2d cell III is much longer than cell V. The larvae, which are sometimes found in dwellings in 4 FIG. 568. Wing of Scenofimis. under carpets or in furniture, are very slender, and are re- markable for the apparently large number of the segments of the body, each of the abdominal segments except the last being divided by a strong constriction. They are also found in decaying wood, and are supposed to be carnivorous. The family is a very small one. The most common species is Scenopinus fcncstralis (Sce-nop'i-nus fen-es-tra'lis). Family EMPIDID^E (Em-pid'i-dae). T/ie Dance-flics. The dance-flies are of medium or small size; they are often seen in swarms under trees or near shrubs and about brooks, dancing and hunting. The family is a rather diffi- cult one to characterize owing to great variations in the form of the antennae and in the venation of the wings. The branches of vein VII coalesce with the adjacent veins (VII, with V 3 and VII 2 with IX) from the margin of the wing towards the base for a considerable distance (Fig. 569). In most of the genera this coalescence is carried so far that the free parts of the branches of vein VII appear DIPTERA. 467 like cross-veins. The only other families of the suborder Orthorrhapha in which this occurs are the two following ; and the venation of the wings in each of these is very differ- ent from that of the Empididae. The antennae are three-jointed ; the first and second Til, 4+5 VIIi FIG. 569. Wing of Rhantphontyia. segments are often very small, and then appear like a single segment ; the third segment may or may not bear a style or bristle. The mouth-parts are in many cases long, and ex- tend at right angles to the body or are bent back upon the breast. These flies are predaceous, like the robber-flies ; but they also frequent flowers. The larvae live in decaying vegetable matter, but are probably carnivorous. The pupae are free. The family is a large one, containing many genera and species. Family DOLICHOPODID^: (Dol-i-cho-pod'i-dae). The Long-legged Flies. These flies are of small or medium size and usually bright metallic green in color. The legs are much longer than is usual in the families belonging to the series of short-horned flies (Fig. 570). This suggested the name Do- lichopus (Do-lich'o-pus), which means long- footed, for the typical genus ; and from this FlG S70 .- Dolicko . the family name is derived. It should be pus lobatus. 468 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. remembered, however, that these flies are long-legged in comparison with the allied families, and not in comparison with crane-flies and midges. The members of this family are easily distinguished as such by the peculiar venation of the wings, the most char- acteristic features of which are the following (Fig. 571): cells V and ist V 2 are not separated by a vein, the basal part of vein V 3 being undeveloped; veins III 2+3 and III 4+6 separate near the base of the wing, and the two veins form v, FIG. 571. Wing of Psilofliut ciliatus. at the point of separation a more or less knot-shaped swell- ing ; the cross-vein III-V is at or close by this swelling, so that cell III is very short. A somewhat similar venation occurs in some of the Muscidae ; but there the knot-shaped swelling on vein III is often wanting, and the cross-vein Ill-Vis usually more remote from the base of the wing; and too the flies belonging to the Muscidae possess the suture above the antennas characteristic of the suborder Cy- clorrhapha. The members of this family have three ocelli ; the an- tennae are three-jointed ; the second segment of the antenna is sometimes rudimentary ; and /the third segment bears a two-jointed arista. The adults are predaceous and hunt for smaller flies and DIPTERA. 469 other soft-bodied insects. They are usually found in damp places, covered with rank vegetation. Some species occur chiefly on the leaves of aquatic plants, and about dams and waterfalls ; and some are able to run over the surface of water. Others occur in dry places. The larvae live in earth or decomposing vegetable matter. They are long, slender, and cylindrical, and have two pairs of spiracles, one at each end of the body. In most cases the pupae are free ; but some form cocoons. The thorax of the pupa bears a pair of long breathing-tubes. The family is a large one ; more than two hundred North American species have been described already. Family LONCHOPTERID/ (Lon-chop-ter'i-dae). The Spear-winged Flies, These are minute flies, which measure from one twelfth to one sixth of an inch in length, and are usually brownish or yellowish. When at rest the wings are folded flat, one over the other, on the abdomen. The apex of the wing is pointed ; and the wing as a whole is shaped somewhat like the head of a spear. This suggested the family name. The venation of the wings is very characteristic, and is sufficient to distinguish these flies from all others. The in ii V 3 + VII i FIG. 572. Wing of Lonchoptera. cross-veins III-V and V-VII are oblique, and near the base of the wing (Fig. 572). Vein VII, is very short, and extends towards the base of the wing. In the females vein 47 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. VII, coalesces with vein V 3 , as shown in the figure; but in the males the tip of vein VII, is free. The posterior lobe is wanting. Three ocelli are present. The antennae are three-jointed ; the third segment is globular, and bears a three-jointed style. These flies are common from spring till autumn, in damp grassy places. They frequent the shores of shady brooks, where the atmosphere is moist. But little is known as yet about their habits and tranformations. In the shape of the wings, the absence of cross-veins, except at the base of the wing, and the great reduction of the anal area of the wing the flies closely resemble the Psy- chodidae. Suborder CYCLORRHAPHA (Cy-clor'rha-pha). The Circular-seamed Flies. To this suborder belong those families of flies in which the pupa escapes from the larval skin through a round opening made by pushing off the head- end of it (Fig. 573). The pupa is always enclosed in a puparium. The adult flies possess a frontal lunule (see footnote page 461), and except in the Pu 1( arium~of ^ rs ^ f ur families a frontal suture, through which j-j ie ptiljnum is pushed out, when the adult is about to emerge from the puparium (see page 419). Family SYRPHID^E (Syr'phi-dae). The Syrphus-flies. The family Syrphidae includes many of our common flies ; but the different species vary so much in form that no general description of their appearance can be given. Many of them mimic hymenopterous insects ; thus some species resemble bumblebees, others the honey-bee, and still others wasps ; while some present but little resemblance to any of these. DIPTERA, 47* The most distinctive characteristic of the family is the presence of a thickening of the membrane of the wing, which appears like a longitudinal vein between veins III and V. This is termed the spurious vein, and is lacking in only a few members of the family ; it is represented in Figure 574 by a VIIi FIG. 574. Wing of Eristalis. band of stippling. Cell III 5 is closed ; and the 2d cell III and cell V are large. The antennae are three-jointed ; the third segment usually bears a dorsal bristle, but sometimes it is furnished with a thickened style. The face is not furnished with longitudinal furrows to receive the antennae as in the Muscidae. The frontal lunule is present, but the frontal suture is wanting. The adults frequent flowers and feed upon honey and pollen. Some fly with a loud humming sound like that of a bee ; others hover motionless except as to their wings for a time, and then dart away suddenly for a short distance, and then resume their hovering. The larvae vary greatly in form and habits. Some prey upon plant-lice, and are often found in the midst of colonies of these insects ; others feed on decaying vegetable matter, and live in rotten wood, in mud, and in water. Some are found in the nests of ants ; and some in the nests of bum- blebees and of wasps. Among the common representatives of this family there is one that so closely resembles a male honey-bee as to be THE STUDY OF INSECTS. often mistaken for it. This is the Drone-fly, Eristalis tenax (E-ris'ta-lis te'nax). It is common about flowers. The larva lives in foul water, where it feeds on decaying vegeta- ble matter ; it is of the form known as " rat-tailed," which is described below. The larvae of the genus Volucella (Vol-u-cel'la) are pre- daceous, living in the nests of bumblebees and of wasps (Vespa), and feeding upon their larvae. Some of the species in the adult state very closely re- semble bumblebees. The larvae of the genus Micro- don (Mic'ro-don) are hemispherical, FIG. 575. Microdon^ adult and larva - slug -like creatures (Fig. 575), which resemble mollusks more than ordinary maggots ; they are common in ants' nests. The larvae of several species that live in water as well as some that live in rotten wood are known as rat-tailed mag- gots on account of a long, tail-like appendage, with which the hind end of the body is furnished. This is a tube, like that of a diver, which enables the insect to obtain air when its body is submerged beneath several inches of water or de- caying matter. This tube being telescopic can be lengthened or shortened as the insect may need it; and at its tip there is a rosette of hairs, which, floating on the surface of the water, keeps the tip from being submerged. The larva has on the ventral side of its body several pairs of tubercles armed with spines, which serve as prolegs. Among the more common members of this family are the yellow-banded species belonging to the genus Syrphus (Syr'phus) (Fig. 576). The larvae of these live in colonies of Aphids, and do much good by destroying these pests. This family is a very large one ; nearly or J 1 FIG. 576. Syr- quite two thousand species being known. In /<** his monograph of the species of America north of Mexico, DIPTERA. 473 Professor Williston describes about three hundred species from this region.* Family PlPUNCULTD^; (Pip-un-cu'li-dse). TJic Big-eyed Flies. This family is represented in the United States by a single genus, Pipunculus (Pi-pun'cu-lus). These are small flies, with very large heads composed almost en- tirely of eyes (Fig. 577). The head is nearly spherical, and broader than the thorax. The abdomen is somewhat elongate with the sides nearly parallel. The body is thinly clothed with hair or nearly naked. The wings are much longer than the abdomen, and when at rest they lie parallel to each other upon it. (Fig- 578) closely resembles that of some of the Conopidae. Vein III is three-branched. The last branch of Vein III and FIG. 577 .Pipun- culus. The venation VII 2 -fIX FIG. 578. Wing of Pipunculus. the first branch of vein V approach each other at their tips. Vein V 3 coalesces with vein VII, for nearly its entire length. Veins VII, and IX coalesce at their tips. Cells III and V are long. The flies hover in shady places. They are sometimes found on flowers, and may be swept from low plants ; our most common species measure about one eighth of an inch in length, not including the wings. The larvae so far as known are parasitic upon bugs. * Bulletin of the U. S. National Museum, No. 31. 474 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. Family PLATYPEZID/E (Plat-y-pez'i-dae). The Flat-footed Flics. These flies resemble the House-fly somewhat in appear- ance but are very much smaller. They hover in the air in shady places, and alight frequently on the leaves of low plants, where they run about in circles with great rapidity. The head is hemispherical or spherical, and as broad as or broader than the thorax. The antennae are three-jointed, with a terminal bristle. The legs are short and stout, and the tarsi of the hinder pair are often very broad and flat (Fig. 579). The wings are rather large, and when at rest lie parallel upon the abdo- men ; the axillary excision is prominent, but the posterior lobe of the wing is small (Fig. 580) ; the alulets are minute. Vein III of the wings is three- branched ; veins V, and V 2 either coalesce FIG. 579. Leg of piaty- throughout or separate near the margin peza. <*, forked hairs of . . . . " ' leg greatly enlarged. OI the Wing. Cell V a IS Sometimes divided Va VII, Fir,. 580 Wing of Platyfieza. by a cross-vein, and sometimes not. Cells 2d III, V, and VIII are short. This family includes but few species, and these are usually rare. The larvae live in rotten mushrooms. DIPTERA. 475 Family PHORID; (Phor'i-dae). Tke Humpbacked Flies. These are minute, dark-colored, usually black flies, which can easily be recognized by their humpbacked form and the peculiar venation of the wings. Certain species are often found running about rapidly on windows, others on fallen leaves. Sometimes they are seen in swarms dancing up and down in the air. The head is small ; the thorax large and humped ; and the abdomen rather short. The antennae are apparently ii ni 4 + 5 VII, FIG. 581. Wing of Phora. one- or two-jointed, the last segment with either a dorsal or a terminal bristle. The coxae are long ; the femora, espe- cially of the hind legs, which are rather long, are widened and flattened. The wings (Fig. 581) are large, and are fur- nished with two strong veins near the costal border, which extend but a short distance beyond the middle of the wing. From these strong veins from three to five weak ones extend across the wing. The larvae feed on decaying vegetable matter, dead insects, snails, etc., and some are believed to be parasitic upon other insects. THE STUDY OF INSECTS. Family CONOPID^ (Co-nop'i-dae). The TJiick-Jiead Flics. With the members of this family the head is large, being broader than the thorax. The body is more or less elon- gate ; sometimes the abdomen has a long, slender pedicel like that of certain wasps. The body may be naked or thinly clothed with fine hair, but it is rarely bristly. The ocelli may be either present or absent. The an- tennae are prominent, and project forward ; they are three- jointed ; and the third segment bears either a dorsal bristle + VII, FIG. 582. of donafs ajfinis. or a terminal style. Vein III of the wings (Fig. 582) is only three-branched. The last branch of vein III and the first branch of vein V end near together or coalesce at their tips. Cell V 2 is divided by a cross-vein. Vein V 3 coalesces with vein VII, for nearly its entire length. Veins V1I 2 and IX coalesce at their tips, and sometimes for nearly the entire length of vein VI I 2 . The adult flies are found on flowers. In some genera the abdomen is long, with a slender, wasp-like pedicel (Fig. 583). In others the abdomen is of the more usual form _ The j arvge are paras j t { Ct chiefly upon bumblebees and wasps, but some species infest locusts. F,G. ^.-c DIPTERA. 477 Family CESTRlDyE (CEs'tri-dae). The Bot-flies. This family includes flies that are large or of medium size ; most of the species resemble bees in appearance ; some, the honey-bee ; others, bumblebees. In the vena- tion of the wings they closely resemble the Muscidae ; but the wings are usually furnished with fine transverse wrinkles. They are most easily distinguished from the Muscidae by the small size of the opening of the mouth and the rudi- mentary condition of the mouth-parts, the proboscis being rudimentary and the palpi usually wanting. The head is large, with the face broad. The antennas are small, three-jointed, more or less concealed in a suban- tennal cavity or grooves ; the last segment bears a dorsal bristle. Vein III of the wings is three-branched. Cell III 6 is broadly open (Fig. 584), or is narrowed at the margin of V 3 + VII, ^^ +JX FIG. 584. Wing of Gastrophilns. the wing, or closed. The alulets are usually large, conceal- ing the halteres ; but sometimes they are small. The larvae are parasitic upon mammals. The best known species are the following : The Horse Bot-fly, Gastrophilus equi (Gas-troph'i-lus e'qui). The adult fly closely resembles the honey-bee in 478 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. form except that the female (Fig. 585) has the end of the abdomen elongate and bent forward under the body. It is most often seen flying about horses, which have an instinctive fear of it. The eggs are attached to the hair, chiefly on the legs and shoulders of the horse. The larvae are licked off by the horse and swallowed with its food. When the larvae reach the stomach they fasten themselves to the inner coat of it, and remain there until full-grown. Then they pass from the animal with the dung, and crawl into some protected place, where they transform within a puparium. The Oxwarble, Hypoderma lineata (Hyp-o-der'ma lin- e-a'ta). The larva of this species is the common pest that lives in the backs of cattle just beneath the skin. The adult lays its eggs on the backs of cattle ; and it has been supposed that the young larvae penetrate the skin, thus reaching the place where they are commonly found. But Dr. Cooper Curtice has recently shown that the larvae are licked off from the back by the cattle and swallowed. He found the larvae in large numbers in the walls of the oesophagus in November ; later, about Christmas-time, they appeared sud- denly, and in large numbers under the skin of the back. The course of their migration from the oesophagus to the skin has not yet been traced. The greater part of the growth of the larva is made within the tumor beneath the skin. When full-grown it passes out through a hole in the skin and undergoes its transformations on the ground. Dr. Curtice has also shown that the most common oxwarble of this country is Hypoderma lineata and not Hypoderma bovis, as has been supposed. The Sheep Bot-fly, Oestrus ovis (CEs'trus o'vis). The eggs of this species are laid in the nostrils of sheep. The larvae pass up into the frontal sinuses and into the horns when they are present. Here they feed upon the mucus. They are very injurious to sheep, causing vertigo or the DIPTERA. 479 disease known as " staggers." When full-grown they pass out through the nostrils and undergo their transformations beneath the surface of the ground. Other species infest rabbits, squirrels, deer, and reindeer. One that lives beneath the skin of the neck of rabbits is very common in the South. Family MUSCID.E (Mus'ci-dae). The Muscids (Mus 1 cids). The form of the more typical members of this family is well shown by the common House-fly. But the family is a very large one and includes species that differ greatly in form. These differences are so great and so varied that some writers divide the family into nearly thirty families. It seems to us, however, to be better to consider these divisions of subfamily value. The following characters are presented by the family as a whole. The antennae (Fig. 586) are three-jointed ; the third seg- ment bears a dorsal bristle. The frontal suture is present (Fig. 587). The proboscis is always present. Vein II of the wings may be present or absent; vein III is three- branched ; cells V, and V 3 are wanting ; the branches of vein VII coalesce with the adjacent veins (VII, with V, , and VII, with IX) for nearly their entire length. The pulvilli are present, and the empodia are never pulvilliform. As this family includes more than one third of all the known Diptera, it usually happens that a large proportion of the flies in a collection belong to it. It seems necessary, therefore, to indicate some of the principal divisions of the FIG. 586. FIG. 587. 480 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. family. The first of these is into two groups of subfamilies, and is based upon the size of the alulets. The division is not a satisfactory one ; and it is only given here because it is commonly employed by writers on the Diptera, and a more definite one has not yet been discovered. A. The alulets large ; face with a depression or vertical grooves beneath the antennae ; cell III 5 closed or 'narrowly open, except in the Anthomyiinae, where it is widely open. p. 480. CALYPTRATE MUSCID^:. AA. The alulets small or wanting; form of face varied; cell Ills usually widely open. p. 484 ACALYPTRATE MUSCID^E. I. CALYPTRATE MUSCID^ (Ca-lyp'trate). To this division belong our most familiar representatives of the family, of which the House-fly and the flesh-flies are good illustrations. As a rule cell III 5 of the wings is closed or narrowly open (Fig. 588) ; but in the last subfamily this in Vj + VII, FIG. 588. Wing of Mitsca domestica. cell is widely open (Fig. 589). Five subfamilies are classed here ; these can be separated by the following table, which is based on one given by Professor Williston. A. Cell Ills of the wings closed or more or less narrowed at the margin of the wing (Fig. 588). B. Antennal bristle wholly bare. p. 481 BB. Antennal bristle distinctly pubescent or plumose. D1PTERA. 481 C. Antennal bristle bare near the tip. p. 482. . SARCOPHAGIN^E, CC. Antennal bristle plumose or pubescent to the tip. D. Dorsum of abdomen bristly ; legs usually elongate, p. 482. DEXIIN^E. DD. Abdomen not bristly, except sometimes somewhat so near the tip. p. 482 MUSCIN^E. AA. Cell Ills widely open, not narrowed at the margin of the wing (Fig. 589). p. 483 ANTHOMYIIN^E. Vj + VIIi FIG. 589. Wing of Lispe. 111,+, Subfamily TACHININ^ (Tach-i-ni'nae). The Tachina-flies (Ta-clii'nd). The Tachina-flies are often found about flowers and rank vegetation. They are usually short, stout, and bristly, and can be distinguished from the three following subfamilies by the bristle of the antennae being wholly bare. The larvae are parasitic, chiefly within caterpillars, and play an ex- ceedingly important part in check- ing the increase of noxious insects. J4 The female fastens her ecro-Q to the Fl T G ' 59 ' ~~ Nemoreea leucania. I1CI cggb IO Ulc Larva, adult, puparium, and eggs skin of a caterpillar (Fig. 590) ; ^[Kuth^s 'SSgSFSi when the larvae hatch they bore their way into their host and live there till they are full- grown. THE STUDY OF INSECTS. Subfamily SARCOPHAGUS^ (Sar-coph-a-gi'nae). The Flesh-flies. These flies resemble those of the preceding subfamily in general appearance, but differ in having the bristle of the antenna plumose or hairy at the base ; the outer end of the bristle is bare. They are called flesh-flies because many of them lay their eggs on the bodies of dead animals, resem- bling in habits the Blow-fly, which belongs to the sub- family Muscinae. The larvae of other species live in dung, in decaying vegetable matter, and in fruits. Subfamily DEXIIN^E (Dex-i-i'nae). The Nimble-flies. In this subfamily the bristle of the antenna is plumose or bristly to the tip, and the dorsum of the abdomen is bristly. The legs are usually long. These flies are much less common than the members of the allied subfamilies ; the larvae of some of the species, at least, are parasitic. Subfamily MUSCINAE (Mus-ci'nae). The Typical Mnscids (Mils' cids]. With these flies, as in the preceding subfamily, the bris- tle of the antenna is pubescent or plumose to the tip; but the abdomen is not bristly except near the tip. Here be- long many of the best-known members of the Muscidae; among the more important ones are the following: The House-fly, Musca domestica (Mus'ca do-mes'ti-ca). This is the most familiar representative of the order Diptera, as it abounds in our dwellings. It lays its eggs in horse- manure, a single female laying from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and sixty eggs ; the larvae become full- grown in from five to seven days, having molted twice ; the pupa state lasts from five to seven days. The Stable-fly, Stonwxys calcitrans (Sto-mox'ys cal'ci- trans). This species resemble the House-fly in appearance; DIPTERA. 483 but it has its mouth fitted for piercing and for sucking blood. It annoys cattle greatly; and before storms and in the autumn it enters our dwellings and attacks us. The larvae live in fresh horse-manure. The Horn-fly, Hcsmatobia serrata (Haem-a-to'bi-a ser- ra'ta). This is an exceedingly annoying pest of horned cattle, which has spread over the United States in recent years. It resembles the House-fly in appearance ; but is less than half as large. These flies cluster in great numbers around the base of the horns ; they also settle upon the back. The larvae live in fresh cow-manure. The Screw-worm Fly, Campsomyia macellaria (Camp-so- my'i-a mac-el-la'ri-a), is a bright metallic-green fly, with four black stripes on the upper part of the thorax ; it measures about one third of an inch in length. This terrible pest resembles the flesh-flies in habits, and it deposits its eggs in wounds, sores, and the nostrils and ears of men and cattle. The larvae living in these situations often cause serious sickness, and sometimes even death. The Blow-fly, CallipJiora vomitoria (Cal-liph'o-ra vom-i- to'ri-a), is larger than the House-fly, and black in color, with a steel-blue abdomen. It flies with a loud buzzing noise, and lays its eggs upon meat, cheese, and other provisions. The eggs hatch in about twenty-four hours, and the larvae become full-grown in a few days. Subfamily ANTHOMYiiiSLE (An-tho-my-i-i'nae). The AntJiomyiids (An-tho-my 1 i-ids). The members of this subfamily differ from other Ca- lyptrate Muscidae in having cell III 5 widely open, vein V I+ , nearly straight (Fig. 589), and not bent in its outer part towards the tip of vein III 4+6 , as in the preceding subfam- ilies. In fact, the type of venation is the same as that which is characteristic of nearly all of the Acalyptrate Muscidae ; and as the alulets are quite small in some of the Anthomyiids, it is difficult for the beginner to recognize all 484 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. members of this family as such. It is to be hoped that other characters than those we now know for separating the Calyptrate Muscidae from the Acalyptrate Muscidae will soon be discovered. The Anthomyiids are very common flies. They are found on leaves and flowers, and are also often found on win- dows in our dwellings. The larvae of most species live in decaying vegetable matter, a few are parasitic on other in- sects, and some attack growing plants. Among the latter are certain well-known pests infesting garden crops. The more important of these are the following : The Cabbage-root Maggot, PJiorbia brassicce (Phor'bi-a bras'si-cae). This insect in its larval state feeds on the roots of cabbage, radish, turnip, and cauliflower; it also attacks the roots of various weeds belonging to the same family of plants. It is one of the most serious pests that gardeners have to contend with. The Onion-fly, PJiorbia ceparum (P. ce-pa'rum). The larva of this species is often exceedingly destructive to onions, consuming the bulb of the plant. The leaves of beet are often mined by maggots; and it has been found that this injury is due to several species of Anthomyiids. The most common of these is Pegomyia vicina (Peg-o-my'i-a vi-ci'na). II. ACALYPTRATE MUSCKXE (Ac-a-lyp'trate). To this division of the Muscidae belong a very large number of common flies. These vary greatly in form, and represent a large number of distinct subfamilies. As a rule cell III 6 of the wings is widely open (Fig. 591), and vein II may be either present or wanting. The alulets are usually very small or rudimentary. The American species have not yet been sufficiently studied to enable us to give a table for separating the sub- families. We will merely refer, therefore, to a few of the more important species. DIPTERA. 485 The Dung-flies, Scatopliaga (Sca-toph'a-ga), are rather IIIi 4+5 VII, + IX V 3 + VII, FIG. 591. Wing of Callopistria annulipcs. slender flies, which have the body clothed with yellowish hair, and which are com- mon, especially about fresh cow-dung. They belong to the Subfamily Cordylnrince (Cor-dyl-u- ri'nse). To the subfamilies Or- talince (Or-ta-li'nae) and Trypctince (Try-pe-ti'nae) belong many common species which have the wings beautifully marked with dark spots or bands. In the Ortalinse vein II extends to the margin of the wing in the usual way; in the Trypetinae the outer part of vein II turns suddenly towards the margin of the wing, FlG . S92 ... The Apple . magl! ot ; ,, larva; 3 , pupa- anH ar flip c;nmf> timf rium; 3, adult; ia, head of larva from side, showing mouth-parts and cephalic spiracle; becomes much less dis- lb '- head * larva from below; IC ' caudal 486 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. tinct. The two following are well-known members of the Trypetinse. The Apple-maggot, Trypeta pomonclla (Try-pe'ta pom-o- nel'la.) This maggot eats into the pulp of apples, boring tunnels in all directions through the fruit ; it attacks espe- cially the early maturing varieties. When full-grown it goes into the ground to transform. The adult is a black and white fly, with banded wings (Fig. 592). The Round Goldenrod Gall. One of the most familiar of abnormal growths on plants is a ball-like enlargement of the stem of goldenrod (Fig. 593). This is caused by a maggot, which lives within it, and which develops into a pretty fly with banded wings. This is Trypeta solidaginis (T. Sol-i- dag'i-nis). There is another gall on FIG. 593. The Round Golden- the stem of goldenrod which is liable rod Gal). ... , . . . , to be mistaken for this one, but which can be easily distinguished from it. It is more elongate, and is hollow. It is made by the larva of a Tineid moth, Gcleckia gall&solidaginis (Ge-le'chi-a gal-lae-sol-i-dag'i-nis) ; it maybe called the Elliptical Goldenrod Gall. The Stem-eyed Fly, Sphyracephala brevicornis (Sphyr-a- ceph'a-la brev-i-cor'nis) is a very singular fly, which is found on the leaves of skunk-cabbage. On each side of the head there is horn-like process extending outward, upon the end of which the eye is situated. This species is the only Amer- ican representative of its subfamily, the Diopsintz (Di-op- si'nae), yet described. The Cheese-maggot, PiopJiila casci (Pi-oph'i-la ca'se-i) is the larva of a small black fly, less than half the size of the House-fly. It belongs to the small subfamily PiophilincB (Pi-oph-i-li'nae), in which vein II of the wings is quite closely united with vein III. This fly lays its eggs on cheese, ham, and bacon ; the larvae live in these substances and are often serious pests. They are commonly known as "skippers " on DIPTERA. 487 account of the remarkable jumps which they can make. This is accomplished by first bringing the head and tail ends together and then suddenly straightening the body. In this way one of these maggots can jump several inches. To the genus Ephydra (Eph'y-dra) of the subfamily EpJiydrince (Eph-y-dri'nae) belong several species the larvae of which live in marine or strongly alkaline waters. In the far West and in Mexico these larvae occur in the alkaline lakes in countless numbers ; and are washed ashore in such quantities that bushels of them can be collected. They are gathered by the Indians, who dry them and use them for food, which they call Koo-cha'bee. The Pomace-flies. These are certain small yellowish flies from one-eighth to one-sixth of an inch in length, which are very common about the refuse of cider-mills, decaying fruit, and fermenting vats of grape pomace. These are the pomace-flies ; and their larvae live in the decaying fruit. A very common species is the Vine-loving Pomace-fly, Fir " s94.- Drosophila ampelophila (Dro-soph'i-la am-pe-loph'i-la) (Fig. 594). Family HlPPOBOSClD/E (Hip-po-bos'ci-dae). The Louse-flies. The louse-flies are very abnormal flies that, in the adult state, live like lice, parasitically, upon the bodies of birds and mammals. Some species are winged, others are wing- less, and still others are winged for a time and then lose their wings. The body is depressed ; the head is closely attached to the thorax, which is notched to receive it. The antennae are apparently one-jointed, with a terminal bristle or style; they are situated in a depression near the mouth. The 488 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. frontal suture is present. The legs are broadly separated by the sternum ; they are comparatively short and stout ; the tarsal claws are strong and are often furnished with teeth. The winged forms vary greatly in the venation of the wings. The veins near the costal border are usually strong while the others are weak. Figure 595 represents HI4+S IX FIG. 505. Wing of Olfersia. the venation of Olfersia. In this genus veins III 2 -j- 3 and III 4 -)- 6 separate near the base of the wing. In Hippobosca they separate at or beyond the middle of the wing. Even more remarkable than the parasitic life of the adult flies is the mode of reproduction of these insects. The egg is hatched within the body of the parent, the larva is nour- ished in this position till it is full-grown, and is not born till it is ready to change to a pupa. This mode of reproduction is also characteristic of the two following families, which are frequently on this account classed with this one as a division of the Diptera, termed Pupipara (Pu-pip'a-ra). The most common member of the Hippoboscidae is the Sheeptick, Melophagus ovinns (Me-loph'a-gus o-vi'nus). This is a wingless species (Fig. 596), which lives upon sheep. Hippobosca eqiiina (Hip-po-bos'ca e-qui'na) is winged and lives on the horse. Olfersia ameri- cana (Ol-fer'si-a a-mer-i-ca'na) is also winged and is common on owls and other birds. The species FIG. 59 6. Q t j ie g enus Lipoptera (Li-pop'te-ra) are winged at first and live on birds ; later they migrate to quadrupeds, DIPTERA. 489 where they remain, and having no further use for their wings, they lose them. Family NYCTERIBIID^E (Nyc-ter-i-bi'i-dse). The Bat-ticks. The bat-ticks are wingless parasites of bats. The body is depressed ; the head is small and folded back into a groove on the dorsum of the thorax. The compound eyes are wanting ; the ocelli are present or wanting. The legs are long, and the tarsal claws of ordinary form. Although wingless the halteres are present. The mode of reproduction is similar to that of the Hippoboscidae. Family BRAULID.E (Brau'li-dae). The Bee-louse. This is a minute insect, one-sixteenth of an inch in length, which is parasitic upon the Honey- bee (Fig. 597). It is found clinging to the thorax of queens and drones. It is wing- less, and also lacks halteres. The head is large, but lacks both compound eyes and ocelli. The legs are comparatively short; the last segment of the tarsus is furnished with a pair of comb-like appendages. Only a single species is known ; this is Braula caeca (Brau'la cae'ca). Its mode of reproduc- tion is similar to that of the Hippoboscidae. FIG. 597. CHAPTER XX. Order SlPHONAPTERA (Siph-o-nap'te-ra). The Fleas. The members of this order are practically wingless, the wings being represented only by minute scaly plates. The mouth-parts are formed for sucking. The metamorphosis is complete. These tiny tormentors are best known to us in the adult state \ for it is only during this period that they annoy us and our household pets. The larvae and pupae are rarely observed except by students who search for them. The name of the order is from two Greek words : siphon, a tube ; and apteros, wingless. It refers to the form of the mouth and to the wingless condition of the insects. In our more common fleas the body of the adult is oval and greatly compressed, which allows the insect to glide through the narrow spaces between the hairs of its host. The integument is smooth, quite hard, and naked, except that there are many strong spines, which are arranged with great regularity (Fig. 598), and thus af- ford good characters for distin- guishing the different species. The smoothness and firmness of the body makes it easy for the insect to escape when caught be- F,G.S98.-The Dog-flea and its larva. tween the fingers of man Qr the teeth of lower animals. Doubtless the backward projecting 49 SIPHON A P TERA . 49 1 spines also aid them in their efforts to escape, as every wriggle of the body pushes it forward. When once out of the clutch of an enemy, they quickly leap away. The head is broadly joined to the thorax. There are no compound eyes ; but on each side of the head there is a large ocellus, and hidden in a groove behind the ocellus is the antenna. The mouth-parts are formed for piercing and sucking ; the sucking-tube is formed of the upper lip and the two mandibles ; the maxillae are small, triangular plates and bear long, four-jointed palpi ; the labium is minute and bears a pair of terminal, three-jointed palpi. The mesothorax and metathorax each bears a pair of flat scales, which are sup- posed to be rudimentary wings. The legs are long and strong, and fitted for leaping ; the hinder pair are the larg- est and the middle pair next in size. The eggs are scattered about the floors of dwellings and in the sleeping-places of infested animals. The larvae are slender, worm-like creatures, with a distinct head and with- out legs (Fig. 598). They have biting mouth-parts, and feed upon the decaying particles of animal and vegetable matter always to be found in the dirt in which they live. When full-grown the larva spins a cocoon within which the pupa state is passed. Of the domestic animals only the dog, cat, rabbit, pigeons, and poultry have fleas. They are most common on dogs and pigeons. But the species of fleas do not appear to be so strictly limited to particular animals as are the lice andl some other parasites ; for the species that commonly infests dogs and cats will also attack man without hesitation, and in this country seems to be more troublesome to our race than the Human-flea. To rid a dog or cat of fleas it should be dusted with Persian insect powder (Pyretkrum), and its sleeping-place thoroughly cleaned. The bedding in kennels should be of some substance which can be replaced frequently, as shav- ings or straw, and when replaced the old bedding should be 492 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. burned, and the floors wet with kerosene emulsion or some other insecticide that will destroy the eggs and larvae. In regions where fleas abound much relief can be ob- tained by the use of rugs on the floors of dwellings instead of carpets. The frequent shaking of the rugs and cleaning of the floors will prevent the breeding of these pests within the house. As a single flea will inflict many bites, it often happens that a house will seem to be overrun by them when only a few are present. In such cases a careful search for and capture of the offenders will soon remedy the evil. We have found that in catching fleas greater success attends our efforts if the thumb and forefinger be wet before seizing the flea, and the insect be placed in a dish of water before we attempt to destroy it. Otherwise the insect is apt to escape while we are trying to destroy it. People that suffer from the attacks of these pests can also gain much relief by dusting the upper part of their stockings each morning with Persian insect powder, and by sprinkling a small quantity of this powder between the sheets of their beds at night. This order contains only a single family, the Pnlicidce (Pu-lic'i-dae), of which five or six genera and about twenty- five species are now known. The species that are most fre- quently observed are the following : The Dog-flea, Ceratopsyllns scrraticcps (Cer-a-to-psyl'lus ser-rat'i-ceps). This is the most common flea that infests dog, cat, and man in this country (Fig. 598). It is reddish brown ; the lower margin of the head and the hinder margin of the prothorax each bear on each side from seven to nine black, tooth-like spines. The Human-flea, Pulex irritans (Pu'lex ir-ri'tans). This species lacks the comb-like rows of black spines on the lower side of the head and on the hinder margin of the prothorax. It is also usually darker than the preceding species, being sometimes pitchy brown. It is a common pest in dwellings in Europe, but is comparatively rare in this country. SIPHON A P TERA . 49 3 The Chigoe (Chig'o) or Jigger, Sarcopsylla penetrans (Sar-co-psyl'la pen'e-trans), is a small flea found in the West Indies and South America, which often causes serious trouble to men by burrowing beneath the skin of the foot. It is the fertile female that does this, and soon after enter- ing its host the body of the flee becomes distended with eggs and acquires the size of a pea. In the southern United States the names Chigoe and Jigger are improperly applied to the harvest-mites, which are the immature six-legged forms of various mites that attach themselves like ticks to the skin arid become gorged with blood. CHAPTER XXI. Order COLEOPTERA (Co-le-op'te-ra). The Beetles. The members of this order have a pair of horny wing-covers^ called elytra, winch meet in a straight line doivn the back, and beneath which there is a single pair of membranous wings. The mouth-parts are formed for biting. The metamorphosis is complete. Beetles can be readily distinguished from all other in- sects except earwigs by the possession of horny, veinless wing-covers which meet in a straight line down the back (Fig. 599); and they differ from ear- wigs in lacking the pincer - like ap- pendages at the tail end of the body characteristic 'of those insects (see page 103). Beetles also differ from earwigs in having a complete meta- morphosis. The name of the order, Coleop- FlG - 599- tera, is from two Greek words: coleos, a sheath ; and pteron, a wing. It refers to the sheath-like structure of the elytra (el'y-tra) or wing-covers, which were formerly believed to be modified wings. These wing-covers apparently occupy the position of the fore wings, and can be moved somewhat as wings are moved. Their structure, however, resembles that of the body-wall rather than that of wings ; and in some beetles (e.g., Dytiscus) rudiments of the fore wings exist beneath the elytra. 494 COLEOPTERA. 495 The homology of the elytra is most easily understood by a study of the corresponding parts in other orders of in- sects. In the lower orders of insects there exists at the base of each wing a small sclerite ; these have been termed the paraptera (pa-rap'te-ra), from the Greek para, beside, and pteron, a wing. In some of the orders of insects the paraptera of the mesothorax are in the form of a cup-like scale over the base of each fore wing, and are termed the tegul(B\ this form is well shown by most Hymenoptera. In the Lepidoptera they are even more prominent, and in many cases extend back a considerable distance on each side ; those of this order have been named the patagia. In the Coleoptera the paraptera of the mesothorax reach their greatest development, and so strongly resemble wings that they are still commonly believed to be the fore wings. The hind wings are membranous, and in most species very efficient organs of flight. But in some of the pre-eminently running beetles the hind wings are wanting, and the elytra serve only as a protection to the abdomen. With some of these insects the elytra are even grown together where they meet on the middle line of the back. Instances of this kind are not uncommon among the ground-beetles and the dark- ling beetles. The different mouth-parts are very evenly developed ; we do not find some of them greatly enlarged at the ex- pense of others, as in several other orders of insects. The upper lip, or labrum, is usually distinct ; the mandibles are powerful jaws fitted either for seizing prey or for gnawing; the maxillse are also well developed and are quite compli- cated, consisting of several distinct pieces; the maxillary palpi are usually prominent ; and the lower lip, or labium, is also well developed and complicated, consisting of several parts and bearing prominent labial palpi. The larvae are commonly called grubs. They are usually furnished with six thoracic legs, and often with a single proleg at the caudal end of the body ; some, however, as 49^ THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. the larvae of the snout-beetles, are entirely destitute of jointed legs. The pupae have the partially developed elytra, wings, and legs folded upon the breast, but in dis- tinct sheaths (Fig. 600). These insects usually transform in rude cocoons made of earth or of bits of wood fastened together by a viscid substance ex- creted by the larvae. Many wood-burrowing species transform in the tunnels made by the larvae ; and FIG. 600. some O f ti ie Dermestids as well as some of the lady-bugs transform in the last larval skin. Both beetles and their larvae vary greatly in their habits ; while some species are very beneficial to man, others are extremely noxious. More than eleven thousand species of beetles, represent- ing upwards of eighty families, are known to occur in Amer- ica north of Mexico. The following synopsis will aid the student in learning the relationships of these families : SYNOPSIS OF THE COLEOPTERA. (See page ^Q^for a table for determining specimens.} A. THE TYPICAL COLEOPTERA. Beetles with the head and mouth- parts of the ordinary form. B. THE ISOMERA (I-som'e-ra). Typical Coleoptera in which the hind tarsi have as many segments as the others. (There are a few exceptions to this character among the Clavicornia.) C. Isomera in which the fourth and fifth tarsal segments are not grown together. D. THE ADEPHAGA (A-deph'a-ga) or Prcdaccons Beetles. - Isomera in which the first three ventral abdominal segments are grown together, and the first of these is divided by the hind coxal cavities so that the sides are separated from the very small medial part. The Tiger-beetles, p. 516 Family CICINDELID/E. The Ground-beetles, p. 518 Family CARABID.E. The Amphizoids. p. 521 Family AMPHIZOID^E. The Haliplids. p. 522 Family HALIPLID,. The Predaceous Diving-beetles, p. 523. Family DYTISCID/E. The Whirligig Beetles, p. 525 Family GYRINID^E. COLEOPTERA. 497 DD. THE CLAVICORNIA (Clav-i-cor'ni-a) or Clavicorn Beetles. Isomera in which the first ventral abdominal segment is visible for its entire breadth, and in which the antennae are usually clavate or capitate, but not lamellate. The Water Scavenger Beetles, p. 527. Family HYDROPHILID^E. The Beaver-parasite, p. 529 Family PLATYPSYLLID/E. The Leptinids. p. 529 Family LEPTINID^:. The Carrion-beetles, p. 529 Family SILPHID/E. The Scydmaenids. p. 531 Family SCYDM^ENID^E. The Pselaphids. p. 531 Family PSELAPHID^E. The Rove-beetles, p. 532 Family STAPHYLINID^;. The Feather-wing Beetles, p. 533. Family TRICHOPTERYGID^E. The Hydroscaphids. p. 533. .... Family HYDROSCAPHID^E. The Spheeriids. p. 533 Family SPHyERiiD^:. The Scaphidiids. p. 533 Family SCAPHIDIID^. The Phalacrids. p. 534 Family PHALACRID.E. The Corylophids. p. 534 Family CORYLOPHID^E. The Lady-bugs, p. 534 Family COCCINELLID^K. The Endomychids. p. 535 Family ENDOMYCHID^. The Erotylids. p. 536 Family EROTYLID/E. The Colydiids. p. 537 Family COLYDIID^:. The Rhyssodids. p. 537 Family RHYSSODID^:. The Cucujids. p. 537 Family CUCUJID^E. The Cryptophagids. p. 538 Family CRYPTOPHAGID^:. The Mycetophagids, p. 538 Family MYCETOPHAGID^E. The Dermestids. p. 538 Family DERMESTID^. The Histerids. p. 541 Family HISTERID^E. The Nitidulids. p. 541 Family NITIDULID^E. The Trogositids. p. 542 Family TROGOSITID.E. The Monotomids. p. 542 Family MONOTOMlD.t;. The Lathridiids. p. 542 Family LATHRIDIIDTE. The Derodontids. p. 542 Family DERODONTID^E. The Pill-beetles, p. 542 Family BYRRHID^E. The Georyssids. p. 543 Family GEORYSSID^. The Parnids. p. 543 Family PARNID^:. The Heterocerids. p. 543 Family HETEROCERID^E. DDD. THE SERRICORNIA (Ser-ri-cor'ni-a) or Serricorn Beetles. Isomera in which the first ventral abdominal segment is visible for its entire breadth, and in which the antennae are usually serrate. THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The Dascyllids. p. 544 Family DASCYLLID^E. The Rhipicerids. p. 544 Family RHIPICERID^E. The Click-beetles, p. 544 Family ELATERID^;. The Throscids. p. 548 Family THROSCID^E. The Buprestids. p. 548 Family BUPRESTID^E. The Fire-fly Family, p. 550 Family LAMPYRIDJE. The Malachiids. p. 552 Family MALACHIID^E. The Checkered-beetles, p. 552 Family CLERID^E. The Ptinids. p. 553 Family The Cupesids. p. 553 Family The Ship-timber Beetle Family, p. 553. Family LYMEXYLID^E. The Ciids. p. 554 Family CIID^E. The Sphindids. p. 554 Family SPHINDID^E. DDDD. THE LAMELLICORNIA (La-mel-li-cor'ni-a) or Lamelli- corn Beetles. Isomera in which the first ventral abdominal segment is visible for its entire breadth and in which the antennae have a lamellate club. The Stag-beetles, p. 554 Family LuCANID^E. The Scarabaeids. p. 556 Family SCARAB/EID^E. CC. THE PHYTOPHAGA (Phy-toph'a-ga). Isomera in which the fourth and fifth tarsal segments are grown together ; the fourth tarsal segment is usually very small, and concealed in a notch in the third segment. The Aberrant Long-horned Beetles, p. 566. Family SPONDYLID^:. The Long-horned Beetles, p. 567 Family CERAMBYCID^:. The Leaf-beetles, p. 574 Family CHRYSOMELID^E. The Pea-weevil Family, p. 581 Family BRUCHID/E. BB. THE HETEROMERA (Het-e-rom'e-ra) or Heteromerous Beetles. -Typical Coleoptera in which the fore and middle tarsi are five- jointed, and the hind tarsi four-jointed. The Darkling Beetles, p. 582 Family TENEBRIONID^;. The yEgialitids. p. 584 Family ^EGIALITID^E. The Cistelids. p. 584 Family CISTELID^E. The Othniids. p. 584 Family OTHNIID^E. The Lagriids. p. 584 Family LAGRIID^E. The Monommids. p. 584 Family MONOMMID^E. The Melandryids. p. 585 Family MELANDRYID^E. The Pythids. p. 585 Family The CEdemerids. p. 585 .Family The Cephaloids. p. 585 Family CEPHALOID^E. COLEOPTERA. 499 The Mordellids. p. 586 Family MORDELLID.E. The Anthicids. p. 586 Family ANTHICID.E. The Pyrochroids. p. 586 Family PYROCHROID^E. The Blister-beetles, p. 586 Family MELOID^E. The Rhipiphorids. p. 589 Family RHIPIPHORIM:. The Stylopids. p. 589 Family STYLOPID.E. AA. THE RHYNCHOPHORA (Rhyn-choph'o-ra) or Snout-Beetles. Beetles in which the head is more or less prolonged into a beak, and in which the palpi are short and rigid. The Rhinomacerids. p. 590 Family RHINOMACERID^;. The Rhynchitids. p. 591 Family RHYNCHITID^;. The Leaf-rolling Weevils, p. 591 Family ATTELABIDJE. The Byrsopids. p. 591 Family BYRSOPID^;. The Scarred Snout-beetles, p. 592 Family OTIORHYNCHID^;. The Curculios. p. 593 Family CURCULIONID^E. The Brenthids. p. 594 Family BRENTHiDyE. The Bill-bugs, p. 595 Family CALANDRID^E. The Engraver-beetles, p. 596 Family SCOLYTID^;. The Anthribids. p. 598 Family CLASSIFICATION OF THE COLEOPTERA. (For Advanced Stiidents^ In order to use the table for determining the families of beetles it is necessarv that the student should become familiar with certain FIG. 601. Head of Harpalus : a, dorsal aspect ; b, ventral aspect; i, occiput; 2 epicranium; 3, eye; 5, clypeus; 6, gula; 7, antenna; 8, labrum; 10, mandibles; i\d, maxillary palpus; ii/, galea or outer lobe of maxilla; i2, submen- tum; 12^, labial palpus; cs, clypeal suture; g-s, gular suture. FIG. 602. Head and pro- thorax of Rhynchophorus: c, coxa; em, epimeron;yi femur; gs, gular suture ; s. prosternum terms not defined in the discussion of the external anatomy of insects on pages 56-67. The following notes are therefore given as a supple- ment to that discussion. The Head. Two of the sclerites that enter into the composition 5oo THE STUDY OF INSECTS. of the external wall of the head are frequently referred to in descrip- tions of beetles; these are the clypeus and the gula. The clypeus (clyp'e-us) is situated on the dorsal side of the head, and is the sclerite to which the labrum is attached. (Fig. 601, a, 5.) The gula (gu'la) is the central portion of the ventral wall of the head, and is the part which bears the labium (Fig. 601,^,6). The sutures which bound the gula, one on each side, are termed the gular sutures (Fig. 601, b,gs). In the Rhynchophora the gula appears to be wanting, and there is a single suture on the middle line of the head (Fig. 602, gs) ; in this case the gular sutures are said to be confluent. The suture which separates the clypeus from the sclerite immediately behind it (the epicranium) is termed the clypcal suture (Fig. 601, a, cs). The Antenna;. The more common types of antennae are named and figured on page 60. But it is necessary to define two- other terms here. In many insects the first segment of the antenna is long and the antenna is bent suddenly at the joint between the first and second segments ; such antennae are said to be elbowed or genzculate (ge-nic'u-late). In some pectinate antennae the tooth-like processes are very long, giving the antenna a more or less fan-like appearance ; such antennae are defined zsflabellate (fla-bel'late) (Fig. 603). FIG. 603. The Month-parts. The labrum and mandibles are suffi- ciently described on page 61. The parts of the maxillae are repre- sented in Figs. 604, 605, and 606; of these there are five primary FIG. 604. Maxilla of Cicin- FIG. 605. Ventral aspect of dcla. maxilla of Hydrof kilns. FIG. 606. Dorsal aspect of maxilla of Hydrophilus. parts and three appendages. The primary parts are the car do or hinge (a), the stipes (sti'pes) or footstalk (), \hzpalpifer (pal'pi-fer) or pal- pus-bearer (c), the subgalea (sub-ga'le-a) or helmet-bearer (/), and the lactnia (la-cin'i-a) or blade (g). The appendages are the maxillary palpus or feeler (d},\\\&galea (ga'le-a) or outer lobe or superior lobe (/,/), and the digitus (dig'i-tus) or finger (/i). COLEOPTERA. 5OI The parts of the maxilla to which reference is most often made are the palpus and the galea. The number and form of the segments of the palpus are much used in descriptions ; as is also the presence or absence of the galea. When the galea is developed as a distinct ap- pendage, the maxilla is said to be bilobed, the galea being termed the outer lobe, and the lacinia, or blade, the inner lobe (Fig. 604). When the galea is not developed so as to appear as an appendage the maxilla is said to have but one lobe. Much use is made of the form of the parts of the labium or lower lip in descriptions of beetles. When fully developed the labium con- sists of three principal parts and a pair of appendages. The principal parts are the su6mentum,the men/ it HI, and the ligula ; the appendages are the labial palpi. The basal part of the labium, the part which is joined to the gula, is the submentum (Fig. 607, sm). By an unfortunate error this sclerite is almost in- variably described in works on the Coleoptera as the mentum. This fact should be borne in mind by the student when using any of the older books on this subject. The intermediate portion of the labium is FlG - 607. Labium of Creoph ilus : sm, the mentum (Fig. 607, m); and the distal portion submentum;;;/, . .. , ry,, ,. , mentum; .r, labial the ligula. The ligula is a compound organ; but palpus; g, giossa, in beetles the sutures between the different sclerites ^' P ara & lossa - of which it is composed are usually obsolete. Three parts, however, are commonly distinguished, a central part, which is sometimes divided at the tip, \\\e giossa (Fig. 6oj,g), and two parts, one on each side of the giossa, the paraglossce (Fig. 607, p). The part on each side which bear the palpus is termed, when it is distinct, the palpiger. The Thorax. Each segment of the thorax is composed of several sclerities. The shape and relative position of these sclerites afford characters which are much used in classification. Figure 608 is a dia- grammatic representation of what is considered the typical arrange- ment of these parts in each of the thoracic segments. Each segment of the thorax is a ring, which is divided into four parts: a dorsal, a ventral, and two lateral. The dorsal part is named the notum (no'tum) or tergttm (ter'gum) ; each lateral part the pleurum (pleu'rum) ; and the ventral part the sternum (ster'num). When the notum or sternum of a particular thoracic segment is to be indicated, it is done by the use of one of the prefixes pro, meso, or meta. In this way are formed the terms pronotum, mesonotum, meta- notum, prosternum, mesostermtm and metasternum; which are applied to the nota and sterna of the prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax respectively. $02 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The tergum or dorsal wall of each thoracic segment is composed typhically of four sclerities. These are ar- ranged in a linear series (Figs. 608, 609). They are named, beginning with the first or most cephalic, prascutum (prae-scu'tum) (a), scutum (scu'tum) (b), scutellum (scu-tel'lum) (c), and postscutellum (post-scu-tel'lum) (d). In FIG. 608. Diagram of the t u Dro thorax of beetles the sutures between fixed pans of a thoracic segment. these four sclerites are obsolete, the pronotum appearing to be composed of a single sclerite (Fig. 609, 14). The mesonotum and metanotum are usually covered by the wings and FIG. 609 Dorsal aspect of the thorax of a beetle; 14, pronotum; 15, mesonotum; 16, metanotum. Dysticus, dissected. (After Audouin.) FIG. 610. Figure of a beetle, showing the scutellum. elytra, excepting the scutellum of the mesothorax, which is usually quite conspicuous, appearing as a more or less triangular piece be- tween the elytra at their base (Fig. 610). As this is the only one of the three scutella that is usually seen, it is termed the scutellum. Each pleurum or lateral part of each thoracic segment is composed chiefly or entirely of two sclerites, arranged more or less obliquely. The first of these (Fig. 608, e) is the epistei-niun (ep-i-ster'num), the second (Fig. 608, f) is the epimeron (ep-i-me'ron). A third sclerite (Fig. 608,^) is sometimes present near the dorsal end of the epister- num; this is the parapteron (pa-rap'te-ron.) Paraptera have not been found in the prothorax. In beetles the paraptera of the mesothorax COLEOPTERA. 503 are greatly developed ; they project from the body wall, with which they are hinged, and constitute the wing-covers or elytra. The par- aptera of the mesothorax are concealed. Each sternum or ventral part of each thoracic segment is composed FIG. 611. Ventral aspect of a beetle, Enchroma gigantea : /, liead ; 2, gena of the epicranium; 3, eye; 7, antenna; //, thorax; 14, prothorax; i4 e , proepisternum or episternum of the prothorax; 14', proepimeronor epimeron of the prothorax; 14', prosternum; 15, mesothorax; 15, mesoepisternum; is f , mesoepimeron; 15', mespsternum; 16, metathorax; i6 e , meta- episternum; i6 f . inetaepimeron; 16', metasternum; i6 !1 , ante- coxal piece of the metasternum; 17, coxa; 17", trochantin; T7 b , trochanter; i7 c , femur; i7 d , tibia; i7 e , tarsus; 17'', tarsal claws; i7 e2 , pulvilli; 18, elytron. of a single sclerite (Fig. 608, /'.) As indicated above, the three sterna are designed as the prosternum, mesosternum, and metasternum, respectively. In some beetles the metasternum is divided into two unequal por- 504 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. tions by a suture which extends transversely a short distance in front of the caudal margin ; the smaller sclerite which borders the posterior coxae in front and often passes between them is called the ante-coxal piece of the metasterum (Fig. 611, 16 z 1 ). The openings in the thoracic segments in which the legs are in- serted are termed the coxal cavities. Much use is made in the classi- fication of beetles of the form of the coxal cavities of the prothorax. When the epimera of the prothorax extend behind the coxae and reach the prosternum, the coxal cavities are said to be closed (Fig. 612) ; FIG. 612. Prothorax of Harfalus; c, coxa ; em, epimeron ; es, epister- num; /, femur ; , pro- notum ; s, s, s, proster- num. u FIG. 613. Prothorax of Pent he ; c, coxa ; cc, coxal cavity; _/", femur; j, prosternum; t, tro- chanter. FIG 614. when the epimera do not extend behind the coxae to the prosternum, the coxal cavities are described as open (Fig. 613). The Legs. The parts of the leg are described on page 62. In ad- dition to what is said there it should be noted that in beetles the coxae of the hind legs are frequently broad plates which appear to belong to the fixed parts of the thorax, differing greatly in form from the fore and middle coxae (Fig. 611, i7 a ). In many beetles there is a small sclerite which is supposed to be an appendage of the coxa ; this is the trochantin (tro-chan'tin) ; the tro- chantins of the fore and hind coxae are represented in Fig. 6n,and are lettered i7 al . The student should understand clearly the numbering of the seg- ments of the tarsi. In counting these segments the claws borne by the last segment are not included, but the segment that bears these claws is counted. This fact should be carefully noted. We have found that students are very apt to omit counting this segment, espe- cially when it differs in form from the preceding segments. Two of the more common types of the tarsi of beetles are represented in Fig. 614, with the segments numbered. Students wishing to carry their study of beetles beyond the scope of this text-book should procure the" Classification of the Coleoptera of COLEOPTERA. 505 North America," by LeConteand Horn. This work can be purchased of the Secretary of the American Entomological Society, Philadelphia, Pa. In the following pages we have followed closely the classification proposed by these authors, and have made free use of the character- izations given by them ; hence it will be easy for a student to pass from a study of this chapter to the use of that indispensable work. TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE FAMILIES OF THE COLEOPTERA.* A. Head not prolonged into a narrow beak; palpi always flexible; two gular sutures at least before and behind (Fig. 601) ; prosternal sutures distinct (Fig. 612) ; the epimera of the prothorax not meet- ing on the middle line behind the prosternum (Fig. 612). TYPICAL COLEOPTERA. B. Hind tarsi with at least as many segments as the others. C. Tarsi usually apparently four-jointed, the fourth segment being reduced in size so as to form an indistinct segment at the base of the last segment, with which it is immovably united (Fig. 615, 4) ; the first three segments of the tarsi dilated and FIG. 615. FIG. 616. FIG. 617. brush-like beneath ; the third segment bilobed. In a single family, the Spondylidae, the fourth segment of the tarsus, although much reduced and immovably united with the fifth, is distinctly visible, the first three segments are but slightly dilated, and the third is either bilobed or not (Fig. 616, a and b) PHYTOPHAGA. D. Fourth segment of tarsus distinctly visible ; segments of antennae with deep impressions containing the organs of special sense (Fig. 617). p. 566 SPONDYLIDAE. * This table is based largely on the tables given by Le Conte and Horn. Aid was also derived in its preparation from the table of European Coleop- tera by L. Redtenbacher. 506 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. DD. Fourth segment of tarsus inconspicuous ; organs of spe- cial sense of antennae diffused. This group contains three families, which are so connected by intermediate forms that it is not easy to separate them. The following characters will aid the student in separating the more typical forms : E. Body elongate; antennae almost always long, often as long as the body or longer. The larvae are borers, p. 567. CERAMBYCID^E. EE. Body short and more or less oval ; antennae short. F. Front prolonged into a broad quadrate beak ; elytra rather short, so that the tip of the abdomen is always exposed. The larvae live in seeds, p. 58i..BRUCHiDjE. FF. Front not prolonged into a beak; usually the tip of the abdomen is covered by the elytra. Both larvae and adults feed on the leaves of plants, p. 574. CHRYSOMELID^E. CC. Tarsi varying in form, but when five-jointed not of the type described under C, the joint between the fourth and fifth seg- ments being flexible. D. Ventral part of the first segment of the abdomen divided by the hind coxal cavities, so that the sides are separated from the very small medial part. E. Metasternum witli an antecoxal piece, separated by a well-marked suture reaching from one side to the other, and extending in a triangular process between the hind coxae. F. Antennae eleven-jointed ; hind coxae mobile, and of the usual form ; habits terrestrial. G. Antennae inserted on the front above the base of the mandibles, p. 516 CICINDELID^;. GG. Antennae arising at the side of the head between the base of the mandibles and the eyes. p. 518. CARABID./E. FF. Antennae ten-jointed ; hind coxae fixed and greatly expanded so as to conceal the basal half of the hind femora and from three to six of the abdominal seg- ments ; habits aquatic, p. 522 HALIPLID/E. EE. Metasternum either with a very short antecoxal piece, which is separated by an indistinct suture, and which is not prolonged posteriorly between the coxae, or without an antecoxal piece. F. Metasternum with a very short antecoxal piece, p. 521. AMPHIZOID/E. COLEOPTERA. 507 FF. Metasternum without an antecoxal piece. G. Legs fitted for swimming. H. With only two eyes. p. 523 DYTISCIDJE. HH. With four eyes, two above and two below, p. 525 GYRINID^E. GG. Legs fitted for walking, p. 537 RHYSSODID^E. DD. Ventral part of the first segment of the abdomen visible for its entire breadth. E. Antennae with a lamellate club (Fig. 74, 8, page 60). F. Plates composing club of antennas not capable of close apposition, and usually not flattened, p. 554. LUCANID^:. FF. Plates composing club of antennae capable of close apposition, and flattened, p. 556 SCARAB^EID/E. EE. Antennae either clubbed or not, but when clubbed not lamellate. F. Elytra short, leaving the greater part of the abdomen exposed ; the suture between the elytra when closed straight; wings present, and when not in use folded beneath the short elytra ; the dorsal part of the abdom- inal segments entirely horny. G. Abdomen flexible, and with seven or eight segments visible below, p. 532 STAPHYLINID^E. GG. Abdomen not flexible, and with only five or six ventral segments visible, p. 531 PSELAPHID^E. FF. Elytra usually long, covering the greater part of the abdomen ; when short the wings are wanting, or if pres- ent are not folded under the short elytra when at rest; the dorsal part of the abdominal segments partly mem- branous. G. Hind tarsi five-jointed. H. Antennae elbowed, and clavate. I. Elytra truncate behind, leaving two segments of the abdomen uncovered, p. 541 .... HlSTERlD/E. II. Elytra entire, p. 553 PTINID^:. HH. Antennae rarely elbowed, and then not clavate. I. Maxillary palpi as long as or longer than the antennae, p. 527 HYDROPHILID^E. II. Maxillary palpi much shorter than the antennae. ]. Tarsal claws very large ; the first three abdom- inal segments grown together on the ventral side. p. 543 PARNID^E. 508 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. JJ. Tarsal claws of usual size ; ventral abdominal segments usually free ; sometimes (Buprestida?) the first two are grown together. K. Abdomen with only five ventral segments. L. Femur joined to the apex or very near the apex of the trochanter. p. 553. ..PxiNlD^E. LL. Femur joined to the side of the tro- chanter. M. Anterior coxae globular or transverse, usually projecting but little from the coxal cavity. N. Anterior coxae transverse, more or less cylindrical. O. Posterior coxae grooved for the re- ception of the femora. P. Legs stout, retractile ; tibiae di- lated, usually with a furrow near the outer end for the reception of the tarsi ; tibial spurs distinct, p. 542. BYRRHID^E. PP. Tibiae slender, with small and sometimes obsolete terminal spurs, or without spurs. Q. Head constricted behind ; eyes smooth, p. 553 CUPESID^E. QO. Head not constricted behind ; eyes granulated, p. 544. DASCYLLIDiE. OO. Posterior coxas flat ; not grooved for the reception of the femora. P. Tarsi more or less dilated, first segment not short, p. 541. NlTIDULID^E. PP. Tarsi slender, first segment short, p. 542 TROGOSITID^E. NN. Anterior coxae globular. O. Prosternum with a process which extends backward into a groove in the mesosternum. P. The first two abdominal segments grown together on the ventral side. p. 548 BUPRESTIDiE, COLEOPTERA. 509 PP. Ventral segments free. Q. Prothorax loosely joined to the mesothorax ; front coxal cavities entirely in the prosternum. p. 544. ELATERIDJE. QQ. Prothorax firmly joined to the mesothorax ; front coxal cav- ities closed behind by the meso- sternum. p. 548. . . THROSCID/E. OO. Prosternum without a process re- ceived by the mesosternum, although it may be prolonged so as to meet the mesosternum. P. Posterior coxae contiguous, p. 534. PHALACRID.E. PP. Posterior coxae separated. Q. Body very depressed ; middle coxal cavities not closed exter- nally by a meeting of the meso- sternum and metasternum. p. 537. CUCUJID^E. QQ. Body more or less convex; middle coxal cavities entirely sur- rounded by the sterna. R. Prosternum not prolonged behind, p. 538. MYCETOPHAGIDyE. RR. Prosternum prolonged meeting the mesosternum. S. Anterior coxal cavities open behind, p. 538. CRYPTOPHAGID^E, SS. Anterior coxal cavities closed behind, p. 536. EROTYLID/E. MM. Anterior coxae conical, and projecting prominently from the coxal cavities. N. Posterior coxae dilated into plates partially protecting the femora, at least at their bases. O. Antennae serrate or flabellate. p. 544 RHIPICERID^E. 510 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. OO. Antennae with the last three seg- ments forming a large club. p. 538. DERMESTID^E. OOO. Antennae with the last three segments somewhat larger than the preceding, but not suddenly en- larged, p. 542 DERODONTID^. NN. Posterior coxae not dilated into plates partially protecting the femora. O. Posterior coxae flat, not prominent, covered by the femora in repose. p. 552 CLERIDyE. OO. Posterior coxse oval, not promi- nent, p. 533 SCAPHIDIID.E. OOO. Posterior coxae conical and prominent. P. Anterior coxae with distinct tro- chantins. p. 552. ..MALACHIID^E. PP. Anterior coxae without tro- chantins. p. 553. . .LYMEXYLID.E. KK. Abdomen with six or more ventral seg- ments. L. Anterior coxae flat. p. 529. PLATYPSYLLID^:. LL. Anterior coxae either globular or conical. M. Anterior coxae globular. N. Prosternum prolonged behind, form- ing an acute process moving in the mesosternum. p. 544. . . . ELATERID/E. NN. Prosternum not prolonged behind. p. 529 LEPTINID.E. MM. Anterior coxae conical. N. Posterior coxae not prominent, flat, covered by the femora in repose. p. 552 CLERID^E. NN. Posterior coxae more or less conical and prominent at least internally, not covered by the femora in repose. O. Posterior coxae widely separated. P. Eyes wanting or inconspicuous. p. 529 PP. With well-developed eyes. COLEOPTERA. 51 1 Q. Elytra covering the abdomen. p. 531 SCYDM/ENIDjE. QQ. Elytra not covering the entire abdomen, p. 533. SCAPHIDIID^E. OO. Posterior coxae approximate. P. Antennae gradually thickened, or clavate ; posterior taisi not wid- ened, p. 529 SlLPHID/E. PP. Antennae setaceous, filiform, serrate, pectinate, or flabellate, rarely with three somewhat larger terminal segments, in which case the tarsi are widened. Q. Anterior coxae long, with dis- tinct trochantins. R. Abdomen with seven or eight ventral segments, p. 550. LAMPYRID^E. RR. Abdomen with only six ventral segments, p. 552. MALACHIID^E. QO. Anterior coxae without tro- chantins. p. 553..LYMEXYLIDiE. GG. Hind tarsi either only three-jointed or four-jointed, but apparently three-jointed, the third segment being small and concealed in a notch at the end of the sec- ond segment. (See also GGG.) H. Wings fringed with long hairs. I. Abdomen with six or seven ventral segments. ". Tarsi four-jointed, the third segment small and concealed in a notch at the end of the second segment, p. 534 CORYLOPHID^E. JJ. Tarsi three-jointed. K. Antennae slender, verticiilate, with longhair, abdomen not prolonged, p. 533. TRICHOPTERYGID^. KK. Antennae short, not verticiilate, abdomen prolonged, p. 533 HYDROSCAPHID^. II. Abdomen with only three ventral segments, p. 533 SPH^ERIID^E. HH. Wings not fringed with hairs. 512 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. I. Tarsi with second segment dilated. J. Tarsal claws appendiculate or toothed ; first ventral abdominal segment with distinct curved coxal lines, p. 534 ............ COCCINELLID/E. JJ. Tarsal claws simple; first ventral abdominal segment without coxal lines, p. 535. ENDOMYCHID/E. II. Tarsi with second segment not dilated. J. Elytra entirely covering the abdomen ; ventral abdominal segments nearly equal, p. 542. LATHRIDIID^. JJ. Elytra truncate ; the first and fifth ventral ab- dominal segments longer than the others. K. Maxilla with galea distinct; anterior coxae small, rounded, p. 542 ..... MONOTOMID^E. KK. Galea wanting, anterior coxae subtrans- verse. p. 541 ................. NITIDULID/E. GGG. All tarsi four-jointed. H. The first four abdominal segments grown together on the ventral side. I. Tibiae dilated, armed with rows of spines, and fitted for digging, p. 543 ....... HETEROCERID/E. II. Tibiae not dilated nor fitted for digging, p. 537. COLYDIID/E. HH. Ventral segments of abdomen not grown to- gether. I. Wings fringed with hairs. J. Hind coxae contiguous and with plates cover- ing the femora entirely or in part. p. 529. JJ. Hind coxae separate and not covering the femora, p. 543 ................ CORYLOPHID^E. II. Wings not fringed with hairs. J. Anterior coxae transverse, p. 541. NlTIDULID^E. JJ. Anterior coxae either globose or oval. K. Anterior coxae globose. L. Tarsi slender, p. 535 ____ ENDOMYCHID^:. LL. Tarsi more or less dilated and spongy beneath, p. 536 ............. EROTYLID/E. KK. Anterior coxae oval. COLEOPTERA. 51$ L. Anterior coxae separated by the horny prosternum. M. Body depressed, head free. p. 538. MYCETOPHAGIDjE. MM. Body cylindrical, thorax prolonged over the head. p. 554 CIID/E. LL. Anterior coxae contiguous, prosternum semimembranous. p. 543. . . . GEORYSSID^E. BB. Hind tarsi with only four segments, the fore tarsi, and almost always the middle tarsi also, with five segments. C. Anterior coxal cavities closed behind. D. Tarsal claws simple. E. Abdomen with five ventral segments. F. Ventral abdominal segments in part grown together. G. Next to the last segment of tarsi spongy beneath. p. 584 LAGRI ID^E. GG. Penultimate segment of tarsi not spongy, p. 582. TENEBRIONID^E FF. Ventral abdominal segments free. G. Anterior coxal cavities confluent, p. 584. OTHNIID,E. GG. Anterior coxal cavities separated by the proster- num. H. Elytra truncate, tip of abdomen exposed. (Rhizo- phagus.) p. 541 NITIDULID.E. HH. Elytra entire, p. 554 SPHINDID^E.. EE. Abdomen with six ventral segments. F. The first two ventral abdominal segments grown to- gether ; the last two closely united, p. 584.^EciALlTlD^:. FF. Ventral abdominal segments free. p. 529. SILPHID.-E. DD. Tarsal claws pectinate, p. 584 CISTELID^E. CC. Anterior coxal cavities open behind. D. Head not strongly and suddenly constricted at base. E. Middle coxae not very prominent. F. Antennae received in grooves, p. 584. ..MONOMMID/E. FF. Antennae free. G. Prothorax margined at the sides. H. Middle coxal cavities entirely surrounded by the sterna, p. 538 CRYPTOPHAGID/E. HH. Epimera of mesothorax reaching the coxae. 514 THE STUDY OF INSECTS, I. Metasternum long ; epimera of metathorax visi- ble. p. 585 ..................... MELANDRYID^E. II. Metasternum quadrate; epimera of metathorax covered, p. 537 .................... CucujiD^:. GG. Prothorax not margined at the sides, p. 585. EE. Middle coxae very prominent, p. 585. . .CEDEMERIDyE. DD. Head strongly constricted at base. E. Head prolonged behind and gradually narrowed, p. 585. CEPHALOID^E. EE. Head suddenly narrowed behind. F. Prothorax with the side pieces not separated from the pronotum by a suture. G. Tarsi perfect, with distinct claws ; eyes normal. H. Prothorax at base narrower than the elytra. I. Hind coxae not prominent, or but slightly so. J. Anterior coxae globular, not prominent, p. 537. CUCUJID^E. JJ. Anterior coxae conical, prominent, p. 586. ANTHICID^E. II. Hind coxae large, prominent. J. Tarsal claws simple ; head horizontal, p. 586. PYROCHROID/E. JJ. Claws cleft or toothed ; front vertical, p. 586. MELOID^E. HH. Prothorax, at base, as wide as the elytra, p. 589. RHIPIPHORID.'E. GG. Tarsi without claws ; eyes pedunculated. p. 589. STYLOPID.B. FF. Lateral suture of prothorax distinct ; base of pro- thorax as wide as the elytra. G. Antennae filiform. H. Hind coxae plate-like, p. 586 ..... MORDELLID^E. HH. Hind coxae, not plate-like, p. 585. MELANDRYID^:. GG. Antennae flabellate in the male, subserrate in the female, p. 589 .................... RHIPIPHORID^E. AA. Head more or less prolonged into a beak ; palpi short and rigid; gular sutures confluent on the median line (Fig. 602,^); prosternal sutures wanting; the epimera of the prothorax meeting on the middle line behind the prosternum. (Fig. 602, em.} RHYNCHOPHORA. COLEOPTERA. 515 B. Elytra with no fold or with a very feeble one on the lower sur- face near the outer edge ; pygidium of male and female alike. C. Labrum distinct, p. 590 RHINOMACERID^E. CC. Labrum wanting. D. Mandibles flat, toothed on inner and outer sides, p. 591. RHYNCHITID^E. DD. Mandibles stout, pincer-shaped. p. 591 . . . ATTELABID^E. BB. Elytra with a very strong fold on the lower surface near the outer margin. C. The last dorsal segment (pygidium) of the male divided transversely, so that this sex appears to have one more dorsal segment than the female. D. Antennae with a ringed or solid club. E. Tarsi narrow, setose or spinose beneath, p. 591. BYRSOPID.E. EE. Tarsi usually dilated, brush-like beneath. F. Mandibles with a deciduous piece, which is lost soon after emergence from the pupa state, and leaves a scar. p. 592 OTIORHYNCHID.E. FF. Mandibles without accessory piece in the pupa state, and therefore without a scar in the adult state, p. 593. CURCULIONID.E. DD. Antennae with ten or eleven distinct segments, p. 594. BRENTHID^E. CC. Pygidium of both sexes undivided. D. Pygidium horizontal ; tibiae usually serrate, p. 596. SCOLYTID.iE. DD. Pygidium vertical or declivous; tibiae not serrate. E. Antennae geniculate ; labrum wanting ; last spiracle cov- ered by ventral segments, p. 595 CALANDRIDiE. EE. Antennae straight ; labrum distinct ; last spiracle un- covered, p. 598 ANTHRIBID^:. Suborder COLEOPTERA GENUINA. The Typical Co leapt era. This suborder includes all the families of Coleoptera except the snout-beetles, which are classed together as a second suborder, the Rhynchophora. THE STUDY OF INSECTS. In the Typical Coleoptera the mouth-parts are of the ordinary type ; the head is not prolonged into a snout ; the gula is present, there being two gular sutures, at least, before and behind (Fig. 601, b); and the epimera of the prothorax are not prolonged so as to meet on the middle line of the body behind the prosternum (Fig. 612). Family ClClNDELlD^E (Cic-in-del'i-dae). The Tier-beetles. The graceful forms and beautiful colors of the greater number of the tiger-beetles have made this family one of the favorites of students of Coleoptera. To this family belong the most agile of all beetles ; and they are not merely swift of foot, but are also able to fly well. They are found on bright, hot days in dusty roads, in beaten paths, and on the shores of streams. They remain abso- lutely still until we can see them well but are still out of reach ; then like a flash they fly up and away, alighting several rods ahead of us. Before alighting they always turn so that they face us, and can thus watch our movements. Their popular name is suggestive of their predaceous habits, and of the spots with which many are marked. They are usually a metallic green or bronze, banded or spotted with yellow. Some are black ; and some that live on white sand are grayish white, being exactly like the sand in color. A useful character for distinguishing the members of this family is the fact that the terminal hook of the maxilla (the digit us) is united to this organ by a movable joint (Fig. 618, //). The sexes of the tiger-beetles can be dis- tinguished, except in Amblychila, by the sixth abdominal segment of the males being notched FIG. 618. so as to expose a small seventh segment ; while in the females only six segments are visible. In the COLEOPTERA. S 1 7 males also the first three segments of the anterior tarsi are usually dilated and densely clothed with hair beneath. It has been said that these beetles make burrows in which to retire from the rain and cold. We have seen them in September digging burrows in a hillside; these descended slightly and were about five inches deep. The beetles kicked the dirt out behind them as they dug, so that it lay in a heap at the opening of the hole. But we were unable to discover whether these burrows were made as dwellings, or, what is more likely, places in which to deposit eggs. No observation as to the egg-laying habits of these insects has come to our notice. The tiger-beetle larvae (Fig. 619) are as ugly and ungrace- ful as the adults are beautiful. The two have only one habit in common their eagerness for prey. The larvae live in vertical burrows in sandy places or in beaten paths. These burrows occur also in ploughed fields that have become dry and hard. They often extend a foot or more in depth. The larva takes a position of watch- fulness at the mouth of its burrow. Its dirt- colored head is bent at right angles to its FlG 6lQ ._ Larva lighter-colored body and makes a neat plug to of Cicindela - the opening of the hole. Its rapacious jaws extend upward, wide open, ready to seize the first unwary insect that walks over this living trap. On the fifth segment of the abdomen there is a hump, and on this hump are two hooks curved forward. This is an arrangement by which the little rascal can hold back and keep from being jerked out of its hole when it gets some large insect by the leg, and by which it can drag its struggling prey down into its lair, where it may eat it at leisure. It is interesting to thrust a straw down into one of these burrows, and then dig it out with a trowel. The chances are that you will find the indignant inhabitant at the remote end of the burrow, chewing savagely at the end of the intruding straw. 5l8 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. Nearly all of our tiger-beetles belong to the genus Cicin- dela (Cic-in-de'la), of which there are about sixty North American species; one of these is represented in Figure 620. We have also two species of TetracJia (Tet'ra-cha) ; see Figure 621. In the Middle West is found Ambly. cliila cylindriformis (Am-bly-chi'la cy-lin-dri-for'mis), the giant of the FIG. 620. FIG. 621. family, measuring one and three eighths inches in length ; and on the Pacific coast occur nine species of Owns (O'mus). In this genus the body is smaller and its thorax larger than in Cicindela. These beetles search for their prey only at night. Family CARABID> (Ca-rab'i-dae). TJic Ground-beetles. The ground-beetles are so called because they are very common on the surface of the ground, lurking under stones or rubbish, or running through the grass. Our more com- mon species are easily recognized by their shining-black color and long legs. On the Pacific coast, however, the darkling beetles (Family Tenebrionidae), which are also black and have long legs, abound under stones and frag- ments of wood on the ground. But the two families can be easily distinguished by the fact that in the ground-beetles all the tarsi are five-jointed, while in the darkling beetles the hind tarsi are only four-jointed; and the darkling beetles do not run rapidly as do the ground-beetles. With the ground-beetles the antennae are thread-like, tapering gradually towards the tip, and each segment is of nearly uniform thickness throughout its length ; the legs are fitted for running, and the antennae are inserted on the front above the base of the mandibles. Although most of the species are black, there are those that are blue, green, or brown, and a few that are spotted. The wing-covers are COLEOPTERA. 519 longitudinal ridges and almost always ornamented with rows of punctures. Most members of this family are predaceous, feeding upon other insects, which they spring upon or capture by chase. A few species use vegetable food ; but their depre- dations are rarely of economic importance. As there are more than eleven hundred described North American species, and as many of the species are very common, this family may be considered the most important family of predaceous insects. The larvae of ground-beetles are generally long, with the body of nearly equal breadth throughout (Fig. 622.) They have sharp projecting mandibles ; and the caudal end of the body is usually fur- nished with a pair of conical bristly ap- FIG - 622 - pendages. They live in the same obscure situations as the adult insects, but are more shy, and are consequently less frequently seen. Like the adults, they are predaceous. Among the more common ground-beetles are the fol- lowing : The Searcher, Calosonia scrutator (Cal-o-so'ma scru-ta'- tor). This is one of the larger and more beautiful of our ground-beetles ; it has green or violet wing-covers margined with reddish, and the rest of the body is marked with violet-blue, gold, green, and copper (Fig. 623). This beetle and the follow- ing have been known to climb trees in search of caterpillars. The Fiery Hunter, Calosoma caliduin (C. cal'i-dum), is some- what smaller than the preced- ing, and is easily recognized by the rows of reddish or copper- FIG. 623. colored pits on the wing-covers (Fig. 624). 5 2 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. There are certain other large, swiftly running ground- beetles which resemble somewhat those just described. These belong to the genus CycJirus (Cy'chrus), and may be recognized by the long, narrow head, the wider or more nearly circular wing-covers, and by the fact that the wing-covers have a very broad, reflected margin, which covers a large part of the sides of the thorax. The bombardier-beetles, Bracliinus (Bra-chi'nus). There are many species of beetles that have at the hind end of FIG. fo 4 . the body little sacs in which is secreted a bacl-smelling fluid, which is used as a means of defence. These beetles spurt this fluid out on to their enemies when attacked. But in the case of the bombardier-beetles this fluid changes to a gas, which looks like smoke as soon as it comes in contact with the air, and is ejected with a sound like that of a tiny pop-gun. When some larger insect tries to capture one of these insect-soldiers, and gets very near it, the latter fires its little gun into the face of its enemy. The noise astonishes the pursuer, and the smoke blinds him. By the time he has recovered from his amazement, the little bombardier is at a safe distance. These beetles have quite a store of ammunition ; for we have often had one pop at us four or five times in succession, while we were taking it prisoner. The bombardier-beetles belong to the genus Bracliinus, of which we have in this country about twenty- five species. They are very similar in appearance ; the head, prothorax, and legs are reddish yellow, and the wing-covers are dark blue, blackish, or greenish blue (Fig. 625). There is a common beetle that resembles the bombardier-beetles quite closely in size and f color, but which may be distinguished by the ~ FIG. 625. comb-like form of the tarsal claws; this is Lebia grandis COLEOPTERA. 521 en- (Le'bi-a gran'dis) (Fig. 626). It has been reported more often than any other insect as destroying the Colorado Potato-beetle. Galerita janus (Gal-e-ri'ta ja'nus) is still another species that bears some resemblance to the bom- bardier-beetles. But it is much larger, measuring two thirds of an inch in length, and has only the prothorax and legs red- dish yellow, the head being black ; the prothorax is only about half as wide as the wing-covers. What is perhaps the most common type of ground-beetle is illustrated by Harpalus caiiginosus (Har'pa-lus ca-lig-i- no'sus), which is represented natural size by Figure 627. It is of a pitchy black color, and is one of the most common FIG. 626. Lebia . . . natural size and of our larger species. 1 here are nearly larged. fifty other species of this genus in this country. Most of them are smaller than this one, are flattened, and have the prothorax nearly square. The beetles of the genus Diccelus (Di-cae'- lus) are quite common ; and some of the larger species resemble Harpalns caiiginosus quite closely. They can be distinguished by a prom- inent keel-shaped ridge which extends back upon each wing-cover from near the corner of the prothorax. The most common of all ground-beetles, in the North- eastern. States at least, is Pterosticus lucublandus (Pte-ros'ti-cus lu-cu-blan'dus). In this species (Fig. 628) the narrow, flat margin on each side of the prothorax is widened near the hinder angle of this segment. FIG. 628. The family AMPHIZOID^ (Am-phi-zo'i-dae) is represent- FIG. 627. 522 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. ed in our fauna by two species of AmpJiizoa (Am-phi-zo'a), which occur in Northern California, Utah, and Vancouver, clinging to logs or stones under the surface of streams. In these beetles the metasternum is truncate behind, not reaching the abdomen, and has a very short antecoxal piece. Family HALIPLID^E (Ha-lip'li-dae). The Haliplids (Hal'i-plids). This family includes a few species of small aquatic beetles, which are oval, more or less pointed at each end, and very convex. The wing-covers have rows of punctures, and the hind coxae are greatly expanded so as to conceal the basal half of the hind femora and from three to six of the abdominal segments. These beetles are not uncommon in ponds and streams, but they swim poorly. Only three genera occur in this country. In Bry chins (Brych'i-us), which is represented by one species from California, the prothorax is quadrate ; in the other genera it is narrowed in front. In Haliphts (Hal'- i-plus) the last segment of the palpi is small and awl-shaped ; in Cnemidotus (Cnem-i-do'tus) it is longer than the third seg- ment, and conical. The larvae are aquatic, occurring near the shores of ponds and streams and in other damp places. The body is rather slender ; each segment except the head is furnished on the back with fleshy lobes with spiny tips, which vary greatly in size in different species ; and the last segment bears a long tapering appen- dage. Figure 629 represents a larva of this family, which we found in large numbers in a pond swarm- ing with Cnemidotns ; it probably belongs to this genus. The larvae of several species of Haliplns are figured by Schiotde, but in each of these the caudal appendage is forked. COLEOPTERA. $2$ Family DYTISCID/E (Dy-tis'ci-dae). The Predaceous Diving-beetles If one will approach quietly a pool of standing water, there may be seen oval, flattened beetles hanging head downward, with the tip of the abdomen at the surface of the water. Such beetles belong to this family. The predaceous diving -beetles are usually brownish black and shining, but are often marked indefinitely with dull yellow. They can be distinguished from the water scavenger-beetles, which they resemble in general appear- ance, by the thread-like form of the antennae. The hind legs are the longest, and are fitted for swimming, being flat- tened, and fringed with hair. The middle and the hind pairs of legs are widely separated. This is due to the very large hind coxae which cover the greater part of the lower surface of the thorax. In the males of certain genera the first three segments of the fore tarsi are dilated and form a circular disk, upon the under side of which are little cup- like suckers (Fig. 630). In a few cases the middle tarsi are dilated also. The females of some species exhibit an interesting dimorphism in that some of the individuals have the elytra furnished with a number of deep furrows (Fig. 631), while others of the same species have them smooth. The diving- beetles abound in our streams and ponds, but they are more often found in standing water than in streams. When at rest they float in an inclined position, head down- FIG. 6 3 i. ward, w ith the tip of the hind end of the body projecting from the water. The spiracles open on the dorsal side of the abdomen beneath the elytra. By lifting the elytra slightly a reservoir is formed for air, which the beetle can breathe as it swims through the water. When THE STUDY OF INSECTS. the air becomes impure the beetle rises to the surface, forces it out, and takes a fresh supply. These beetles are very voracious. They destroy not only other insects, but some of them will attack larger ani- mals, as small fish. When kept in aquaria they can be fed upon any kind of meat, raw or cooked. They fly from pond to pond, and are often attracted to lights at night. Many of the species make sounds, both under the water and in the air. In some cases this is done by rubbing the abdom- inal segments upon the elytra; in others, by rubbing the hind legs upon a rough spot on the lower side of the abdomen. The females deposit their eggs at random in the water. The larvae are known as water-tigers, because of their blood- thirstiness. They are elongated, spindle-form grubs (Fig. 632). The head is large, oval or rounded, and flattened ; FIG. 632. the mandibles are large, sickle-shaped, and hollow, with a slit-like opening near the tip ; they are admirably fitted for holding the prey, and at the same time sucking the juices from its body, the hollow of the mandibles communicating with the oesophagus. The true mouth is quite small. The thorax is furnished with six well-developed legs. With many of these larvae the body ends in a pair of breathing- tubes, which they protrude into the air at intervals. When a larva is fully grown it leaves the water, burrows into the ground, and makes a round cell, within which it undergoes its transformations. The pupa state lasts about three weeks in summer ; but the larvae that transform in autumn remain in the pupa state all winter. This is the largest of the families of water -beetles; nearly three hundred North American species are known. COLEOPTERA. $25 The best way to obtain specimens is to sweep the vege- tation growing on the bottom of a quiet pool with a dip- net. The larger of our common species belong to Cybister (Cy-bis'ter), Dytiscus (Dy-tis'cus), and al- lied genera. In Cybister the little cups on the under side of the tarsal disks of the male are similar, and arranged in four rows. In Dytiscus and its allies the cups of the tarsal disks vary in size. Figure 633 represents a common species of Dy- tiscus. FIG. 633. The most common of the diving-beetles that are of medium size belong to the genus Acilius (A-cil'i-us). In this genus the elytra are densely punctured with very fine punctures, and the females usually have four furrows in each wing-cover (Fig. 631). There are also common diving-beetles that are of about the same size as the preceding, but which have the wing- covers marked with numerous very fine transverse striae; these belong to the genus Colyinbetes (Col-ym-be'tes). Of the smaller diving-beetles, measuring less than one fourth of an inch in length, many species can be found in almost any pond. These represent many genera. Family GYRINID/E (Gy-rin'i-dae). The Whirligig-beetles. As familiar to the country rover as the gurgling of the brook, or the flecks of foam on its " golden-braided centre," or the trailing ferns and the rustling rushes on its banks, are these whirligigs on its pools. Around and around each other they dart, tracing graceful curves on the water, which vanish almost as soon as made. They are social fellows, and are almost always found in large numbers, either swim- ming or resting motionless near together. They rarely dive, except when pursued ; but are so agile that it is extremely 520 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. difficult to catch them without a net. Many of them when caught exhale a milky fluid having a very disagreeable odor. They feed upon small flies, beetles, and other insects that fall into the water, and are furnished with well-developed wings, with which they fly from one body of water to an- other. This is one of the most easily-recognized families of the whole order Coleoptera. The members of it are oval or elliptical in form (Fig. 634), more or less flattened, and usually of a very brilliant, bluish-black color above, with a bronze metallic lustre. The fore legs are very long and rather slender; the middle and hind legs are short, broad, and very much flat- These insects are remarkable for having the eyes completely divided by the margin of the head, so that they appear to have four eyes a pair upon the upper surface of the head with which to look into the air, and a pair upon the under side for looking into the water. The antennae are very short and peculiar in form. The third segment is enlarged, so as to resemble an ear-like appendage, and the following ones form a short, spindle-shaped mass. They are inserted in little cavities in front of the eyes. The eggs of these insects are small, of cylindrical form, and are placed end to end in parallel rows upon the leaves of aquatic plants. The larvae (Fig. 635) are long, narrow, and much flattened. Each abdominal segment is furnished with a pair of tracheal gills, and there is an additional pair at the caudal end of the body. The elongated form of the body and the conspicuous tracheal gills cause these larvae to re- semble small centipedes. When a larva is full grown it leaves the water and spins a gray, paper- like cocoon attached to some object near the water. The pupa state of the species in which it has been observed lasts about a month. The family is a small one. At present only thirty-six COLEOPTERA. $2? North American species are known. These represent three genera. The genus Gyretus (Gyr'e-tus) is distinguished by having the last ventral segment of the abdomen elongated and conical. It is represented by a single species, G. sinnatus (G. sin-u-a'tus). In the other two genera the last ventral segment is flattened and rounded at the tip. In Dineutus (Di-neu'tus) the scutellum is wanting ; there are eight spe- cies of this genus. In Gyrinus (Gy-ri'nus) the scutellum is visible ; of this genus we have twenty-seven species. Family HYDROPHILID^: (Hyd-ro-phiri-dae). The Water-scavenger Beetles. The water-scavenger beetles are common in quiet pools, where they may be found swimming through the water, or crawling among the plants growing on the bottom. They can be easily taken by sweeping such plants with a dip-net. They are elongated, elliptical, black beetles, resembling the predaceous diving beetles in appearance ; but they are usually more convex, and differ also in having club-shaped antennae and very long palpi. As the antennae are usually concealed beneath the head, it often happens that the inex- perienced student mistakes the long palpi for antennae. These beetles are supposed to live chiefly upon decaying vegetation in the water; but a number of species have been known to catch and eat living insects. They breathe by car- rying a film of air on the lower surface of the body. This film gives them a silvery appearance when seen from below. They obtain the air by bringing the head to^ the surface of the water and projecting the antennae, which they again fold back with a bubble of air when they descend. The female makes a case for her eggs out of a hardened silk-like secretion. Some species deposit as many as a hundred eggs in one of these water- proof packages (Fig. 636). The egg-cases in some instances are fastened beneath the leaves of aquatic 5 28 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. plants ; in others they are provided with floats and let loose in the water ; and in still other species the cases are carried by the mother underneath her body and steadied with her hind legs. Frequently some of the young larvae devour their companions ; in this way the size of the family is de- creased before it escapes from the egg-case. Later they live upon insects that fall into the water and upon snails. These larvae resemble somewhat those of the Dytiscidae; but the body is much more plump, and the mandibles are of moderate size. A very interesting observation on the mode of feeding of one of these larvae has been published. It cap- tured a fly, and swam with it rapidly through the water to a leaf near the surface. It then rested on this leaf, and, rais- ing its head out of the water, crushed the fly to pulp with its jaws, letting the blood run into its open mouth. The Hydrophilidse are represented in North America by about one hundred and fifty species. Our three largest be- long to the genus Hydrophilus (Hy-droph'i-lus). In this genus the metasternum is prolonged backward into a spine between the hind legs, and the ster- num of the prothorax bears a deep furrow. Our most common species is HydropJiilns triangularis (H. tri-an-gu- la'ris) (Fig. 637). The beetles of the genus Tropister- nus (Trop-i-ster'nus) agree with Hy- dropliilus in the form of the proster- num and metasternum, but differ in size, our species measuring less than one-half inch in length. The most common species in the East is Tropi- sternus glaber (T. gla'ber), and, on the Pacific coast, T. californicus. Next in size to HydropJiilns are several species of Hy- drocharis (Hy-droch'a-ris). In this genus the metasternum is prolonged somewhat, but does not form a long, sharp FIG. 637. COLEOPTERA, S 2 9 spine as in Hydrophilus and Tropisternus, and the sternum of the prothorax bears a keel-shaped projection. Our most common species is Hydrocharis obtnsatus (H. ob-tu-sa'tus); this measures about five eighths of an inch in length. Some of the smaller species of this family are not aquatic, but live in moist earth and in the dung of cattle, where, it is said, they feed on dipterous larvae. Family PLATYPSYLLID^E (Plat-y-psyl'i-dae). The Beaver-parasite. Only a single representative of this family is known ; this is Platypsylla castoris (Plat-y-psyl'la cas'to-ris), which lives parasitically on the beaver. This beetle is about one tenth of an inch in length ; the body is ovate, elongate, and much flattened ; the wing-covers are short, about as long as the prothorax, and leave five abdominal segments exposed ; the eyes and wings are wanting. Specimens of this remarkable insect are most easily obtained by beating over a sheet of paper the dried skins of beavers, which can be found at fur-stores. The family LEPTINID^; (Lep-tin'i-dae) is represented by only two species in North America. One of these is from the Hudson Bay region ; the other, Leptinus testaceus (Lep- ti'nus tes-ta'ce-us) lives with various small rodents and insec- tivora, either on their bodies or in the material of their nests. It can be distinguished by the characters given in the table of families. Family SlLPHlD.E (Sil'phi-dse). The Carrion-beetles. The carrion-beetles are mostly of medium or large size, many species attaining the length of one and one half inches, while the smaller species of the more typical genera are nearly half an inch in length ; some members of the family, however, are minute. The segments near the tip of the an- 530 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. tennse are usually enlarged so as to form a compact club, which is neither comb-like nor composed of thin movable plates; sometimes the antennae are nearly filiform. These insects usually feed upon decaying animal matter; some, however, feed upon fungi, and a few species have been known to be predaceous when pressed by hunger, destroying living snails and insects even members of their own species. It is easy to obtain specimens of these insects by placing pieces of meat or small dead animals in the fields and exam- ining them daily. There are several other families of beetles the members of which can be attracted in this way. The larvae also live upon decaying flesh and are found in the same situations as the adults. We have in this country more than one hundred species of this family. Our larger and more familiar species repre- sent two genera, NccropJiorns (Nec-roph'o-rus) and Silplia (Sil'pha). The Burying-beetles, NccropJiorns. To this genus belong the largest members of the family. The body is very stout, almost cylindrical (Fig. 638). Our com- mon species have a reddish spot on each end of each wing-cover ; these spots are often so large that they ap- pear as two transverse bands. In some species the prothorax and the head are also marked with red. These insects are called burying- beetles because they bury carrion. When a pair of these beetles discover a dead bird, mouse, or other small ani- mal, they dig beneath it, removing the FIG. 638. earth so as to allow the carrion to settle into the ground. This they will continue until the object is below the surface of the ground. Then they cover it with earth, and finally the female digs down to it and lays COLEOPTERA. S3 1 her eggs upon it. The larvae that hatch from these eggs feed upon the food thus provided for them. There are many accounts of exhibitions of remarkable strength and sagacity by burying-beetles. A pair of these insects have been known to roll a large dead rat several feet in order to get it upon a suitable spot for burying. The members of the genus Silp/ia are very much flat- tened (Fig. 639). The prothorax is round in outline, with very thin edges which overlap the wing-covers somewhat. The body is not nearly as stout as that of a burying-beetle, being fitted for creeping under dead animals instead of for performing deeds requiring great strength. FlG - 6 39- In some of the minute members of the family the body is nearly hemispherical. The family SCYDM/ENID^E (Scyd-maen'i-dae) includes very small insects found under bark or stones, in ants' nests, or near water. They are small, shining, usually ovate, but sometimes slender insects, of a brown color, and more or less clothed with erect hairs. Other characters are given in the preceding table of families. Nearly fifty North American species are known. The family PSELAPHID^E (Pse-laph'i-dae) includes certain very small beetles, the larger ones not exceeding one eighth inch in length. They resemble rove-beetles in the shortness of the wing-covers and in having the dorsal part of the abdominal segments entirely horny ; but they differ from them in that the abdomen is not flexible, and in having fewer abdominal segments, there being only five or six on the ventral side. The species are of a chestnut-brown color and usually slightly pubescent. The elytra and abdomen are convex and usually wider than the head and prothorax. These beetles are found under stones and bark, or in ants- nests, or flying in the twilight. Nearly one hundred and fifty species are known from North America. 53 2 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. Family STAPHYLINID^E (Staph-y-lin'i-dae). The Rove-beetles. The rove-beetles are very common about decaying ani- mal matter, and are often found upon the ground, under stones or other objects. They are mostly very small insects ; a few species, however, are of larger size, measuring a half inch or more in length. Their appearance is very charac- teristic, the body being long and slender, and the wing- covers very short (Fig. 640). The wings, however, are fully developed, often exceeding the abdomen in length ; when not in use the wings are folded beneath the short wing-covers. The abdominal segments are freely movable, and are seven or eight in number. It is interesting to watch one of these insects fold its wings ; frequently they find it necessary to make use of the tip of the abdomen or of one of the legs in order to get the wings folded beneath the wing-covers. The rove-beetles can run quite swiftly; and they have the curious habit, when disturbed, of raising the tip of the abdomen in a threatening manner, as if they could sting. As some of the larger species resemble wasps somewhat in the form of the body, these threatening motions are often as effective as if the creature really had a sting. As these insects feed upon decaying animal and vegetable matter, they should be classed as beneficial. The larvae re- semble the adults in the form of the body and are found in similar situations. About one thousand North American species of rove- beetles have been described. The great majority of them are small and exceedingly difficult to determine. Among the large species that are common are the following : Creophilus irillosus (Cre-oph/i-lus vil-lo'sus). This species varies from one-half inch to nearly an inch in length. It is of a shining black color, spotted with patches of fine gray COLEOPTERA. 533 hairs. There is a conspicuous band of these across the middle of the wing-covers, and another on the second and third abdominal segments ; this abdominal band is best marked on the lower side of the body. Stapkylinus maciilosus (Staph-y-li'nus mac-u-lo'sus) is a larger species, which often measures fully an inch in length. It is densely punctured, and of a dull-brown color, with the scutellum black, and a row of obscure, square, blackish spots along the middle of the abdomen. Staphylinus vnlpinus (S. vul-pi'nus) resembles the pre- ceding somewhat, but it has a pair of bright-yellow spots at the base of each abdominal segment. Lcistotroplius cingulatus (Leis-tot'ro-phus cin-gu-la'tus) is of about the same size as the preceding. It is brown, speckled with brownish-black spots, and the tip of its abdomen is clothed with golden hairs. The family TRICHOPTERYGID^: (Tri-chop-te-ryg'i-dae), or the Feather-wing Beetles, includes the smallest beetles that are known ; most of our species are less than one twenty- fifth of an inch in length, and in many cases they are not half that size. The most striking feature of the typical forms is the shape of the wings, which are long, narrow, and fringed with long hairs, being feather-like in appearance ; but in some species the wings are wanting. Some species live in rotten wood, muck, manure, and other decaying organic matter; a few have been found in ants' nests. The family HYDROSCAPHID^E (Hyd-ro-scaph'i-dae) is rep- resented in America by a single, minute, aquatic species from California. See table of families for its characteristics. The family SPH^ERIID^E (Sphae-ri'i-dae) is also repre- sented on this continent by a single Californian species. It lives in mud or under stones near water. Its distinguishing features are eriven in the table of families. o The family SCAPHIDIID^E (Scaph-i-di'i-dae) includes less than twenty known North American species. They are 534 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. small, oval, very shining insects, found in fungi and rotten wood. The elytra are broadly truncate behind, not covering the entire abdomen. The family PHALACRID.E (Pha-lac'ri-dae) includes a small number of very small, convex, shining black beetles, which are sometimes two-spotted or tipped with red. They are found on flowers and sometimes under bark. The family CORYLOPHIDJE (Cor-y-loph'i-dae) includes minute beetles found under damp bark and in decaying vegetable matter. The body is oval or rounded, and in many species is clothed with a grayish pubescence. The wings are wide, and fringed with long hairs. About twenty- five North American species are known. Family COCCINELLID^: (Coc-ci-nerii-dae). The Lady-bugs. These insects are well known to nearly every child under the popular name given above. They are more or less nearly hemispherical, generally red or yellow, with black spots, or black, with white, red, or yellow spots. The larvae occur running about on foliage ; they are often spotted with bright colors and clothed with warts or with spines (Fig. 641). When ready to change to a pupa the larva fastens itself by its tail to any convenient object, and the skin splits open . 6 4 i. on ti ie back. Sometimes the pupa state is passed within this split skin, and sometimes the skin is forced back and remains in a little wad about the tail (Fig. 642). With very few exceptions, the lady-bugs are pre- FIG. 6 42 . daceous, both in the larval and adult states. They feed upon small insects and upon the eggs of larger species. The larvae of certain species are known as "niggers" by hop-growers, and are greatly prized by them ; for they are very destructive to the hop-louse. On the Pacific coast the lady-bugs are well known as the most beneficial of all insects COLEOPTERA. 535 to the fruit-growers. Nothing more wonderful has been accomplished in economic entomology than the subduing in California of the cottony-cushion scale by the introduction from Australia of a lady-bug, Vedalia (Ve-da'li-a), which feeds upon it. Next in importance to the Vedalia on the Pacific coast are the twice-stabbed lady-bugs. Several species that occur on both sides of the continent are included under this popu- lar name. They are black, with a bright-yellow or reddish spot on each wing-cover. They are especially prized in California as they feed on the pernicious scale, the black scale, and other destructive species. A very common lady-bug in the East is Adalia bipunctata (A-da'li-a bi-punc-ta'ta). This species is figured on Plate I, Figure 3. It is reddish yellow above, with the middle of the prothorax black, and with a black spot on each wing-cover. It frequently passes the winter in our dwellings, and is found on the walls and windows in early spring. Under such circumstances it is often mistaken for the carpet-beetle and, unfortunately, destroyed. The Nine-spotted Lady-bug, Cocciiiclla uoveninotata (Coc-ci-nel'la no-vem-no-ta'ta) has yellowish wing- covers, with four black spots on each, in addition to a common spot just back of the scutellum J FIG. 6 43 . (Fig. 643). The Herbivorous Lady-bug, EpilacJina borealis (Ep-i- lach'na bor-e-a'lis), presents a remarkable exception in habits to what is the rule in this family. The larva of this species is herbivorous, feeding on the leaves of squash, pumpkin, and allied plants. It is yellow and is clothed with forked spines (Fig. 644). A pupa is shown in the figure near the upper right-hand corner. The adult is yellowish, with large black spots. The family ENDOMYCHIU.E (En-do-mych'i-dae) includes a small number of species which are found chiefly in fungi. The body is usually more elongate than in the preceding 536 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. family ; the antennae are about half as long as the body ; the prothorax is nearly square, and usually has a wide, thin margin, which is slightly turned upwards at the sides. FIG. 644. Family EROTYLID/E (Er-o-tyl'i-dae). The Erotylids (Er-ot 1 y-lids). The members of this family are usually of moderate or small size; but some species are quite large, measuring three fourths inch or more in length. Some of our more common species are conspicuously marked with shining black and red. To the genus Megalodachne (Meg-a-lo-dach'ne) belong two common, large species, which are black, with two dull-red bands extending across the wing-covers. J\L Jicros (M.he'ros) (Fig. 645) is two thirds of an inch or more in length. M. fasciata (M. fas-ci-a'ta) is about half an inch long. The genus Languria (Lan-gu'ri-a) includes 645 ' long, narrow species, which resemble click-beetles in form. COLEOPTERA. 537 Figure 646 represents L. mosardi (L. mo-zar'di) greatly enlarged. This is a reddish species with dark-blue wing- If^r _- itjij.'j HI is: f iw Jfc FIG. 646. covers ; the larva bores in the stalks of clover. The family COLYDIID.E (Col-y-di'i-dae) is composed of small insects which are usually of an elongate or cylindrical form, and are found under bark, in fungi, and in earth. Some of the species are known to be carnivorous, feeding on the larvae of wood-boring beetles. The tarsi are four- jointed ; the tibiae are not fitted for digging, and the first four abdominal segments are grown together on the ventral side. More than fifty North American species are known. The family R.HYSSODIDyE (Rhys-sod'i-dae) includes only four species, two from each side of the continent. They are elongate, somewhat flattened beetles, with the head and prothorax deeply furrowed with longitudinal grooves. They are found under bark. Family CUCUJID^; (Cu-cu'ji-dse). The Cucnjids (Cit' cu-jids). The insects of this family are very flat and usually of an elongate form; most of the species are brown, but some are of a bright red color. As a rule they are found under bark and are believed to be carnivorous both in the larval and adult states ; but some feed in grain. THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The most conspicuous of our common species is Cucujus clavipes (Cu'cu-jus clav'i-pes) (Fig. 647). This insect is about one half inch in length and of a bright red color, with the eyes and antennae black and the tibiae and tarsi dark. The most important member of this family is FiG6 47 . the Corn Silvanus, Silvanus snrinamensis (Sil-va'- nus sur-i-na-men'sis), which is one of the small beetles that infest stored grain. This species is readily distinguished from other small beetles with similar habits by its flattened form and the saw-like edges of the prothorax. Besides grain it often infests dried fruits and other stores. It meas- ures from one tenth to one eighth of an inch in length. The family CRYPTOPHAGID^E (Cryp-to-phag'i-dae) in- cludes insects of small size, usually less than one tenth of an inch in length, and of variable form, but never very flat. The thorax is nearly or quite as wide as the wing-covers and the first ventral abdominal segment is somewhat longer than the others. They are generally of a light yellowish- brown color, and live on fungi and decomposing vegetable matter. The family MYCETOPHAGID^E (My-cet-o-phag'i-dae) is composed of small, oval, rarely elongate, moderately convex beetles. They are densely punctured and hairy, and are usually prettily marked insects. They live on fungi and under bark. Family DERMESTID^E (Der-mes'ti-dae). The Dermestids (Der-mes'tids). There are several families of small beetles that feed on decaying matter, or on skins, furs, and dried animal sub- stances. The most important of these is the Dermestidae. as several species belonging to this family destroy house- hold stores or goods. The Dermestids can be distinguished from most of the COLEOPTERA. 539 other beetles with similar habits by the fact that the wing- covers completely cover the abdomen. They are chiefly small beetles, although one of the common species measures one third inch in length. They are usually oval, plump beetles, with pale gray or brown markings, which are formed by minute scales, which can be rubbed off. These beetles have the habit of pretending that they are dead when they are disturbed ; they will roll over on their backs with their legs meekly folded and lie still for a long period. The larvae do much more damage than the adults. They are active, and are clothed with long hairs. These hairs are covered throughout their entire length with microscopic barbs. The Larder Beetle, Dcrmestes lardarius (Der-mes'tes lar-da'ri-us). This pest of the larder is the most common of the larger members of this family. It is three tenths of an inch long, and black except the basal half of its wing-covers, which are pale buff or brownish yellow. This lighter portion is usually crossed by a band of black spots, three on each wing-cover (Fig. 648). The larva feeds on dead animal matter, as meat, skins, feathers and cheese. It is often a serious pest where bacon or ham are stored. When full grown it is about half an inch in length, dark brown above, whitish below, and rather thickly FIG. 6 4 s. covered with long, brown hairs. It is said that this insect can be attracted by baits of old cheese, from which they may be gathered and destroyed. The Carpet Beetle, Antlirenus scrophularia (An-thre'nus scroph-u-la'ri-ae). During recent years this insect has be- come the worst of household pests, feeding in its larval state on carpets, woollens, furs, and feathers. The larva is well- known to many housekeepers as the Buffalo-moth. It is a short, fat grub, about one fifth of an inch in length when full grown, and densely clothed with dark brown hairs. It lives in the cracks of floors, near the edges of rooms, and be- neath furniture, where it eats holes in the carpet. It also 540 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. enters wardrobes and destroys clothing. The adult is a pretty little beetle which may be found in infested houses, in the spring, on the ceilings and windows. It is about one seventh of an inch in length and clothed with black, white, and brick-red scales (Plate I, Fig. I). There is a whitish spot on each side of the prothorax, and three irregular, whitish spots on the outer margin of each wing-cover ; along the suture where the two wing-covers meet there is a band of brick-red scales, which is widened in several places. It is worth while to learn to know this beetle ; for a Lady-bug (Plate I, Fig. 3), which often winters in our houses, is fre- quently mistaken for it. The Carpet Beetle in its adult state feeds on the pollen of flowers. Sometimes it abounds on the blossoms of currant, cherry, and other fruits. The best way to avoid the ravages of this pest is to use rugs in- stead of carpets, and to trap the larvae by placing woollen cloths on the floors of closets. By shaking such cloths over a paper once a week the larvae can be captured. The change from carpets to rugs is a very desirable one ; for carpets that are tacked to the floor and taken up only once or twice a year are unwholesome. The change need not be a very expensive one. As carpets wear out they may be replaced with rugs ; and good carpets can be made over into rugs. If the floors are not polished as is usually the case where it was planned to cover them with carpets, they can be made presentable by filling the cracks with putty and painting the boards where they are to be exposed. The museum pests, AntJircnus varius (An-thre'nus va'- ri-us) and AntJirenus innseoruni (A. mu-se-o'rum). There are two minute species of this family that are a constant source of annoyance to those having collections of insects. The adult beetles measure less than one eighth of an inch in length, and are very convex. They deposit their eggs on specimens in our collections ; and the larvae feed upon the specimens, often destroying them. In order to preserve a collection of insects it is necessary that they should be kept COLEOPTERA. 541 in tight cases, so that these pests cannot gain access to them. Specimens should not be left exposed except when in use. And the entire collection should be carefully examined at least once a month. The injury is done by the larvae, which are small, plump, hairy grubs. Their presence is in- dicated by a fine dust that falls on to the bottom of the case from the infested specimens. These larvae can be destroyed by pouring a small quantity of car- bon bisulphide into the case, and keeping it tightly closed for a day or two. Benzine poured on a bit of cotton in the box will cause the pests to leave the specimens, when they may be taken from the box and destroyed. But we have found carbon bisulphide the better agent for the de- struction of these pests. The Raspberry Fruit-worm, Byturns unicolor (By-tu'rus u-ni-co'lor). The fruit of the red raspberry is often infested by a small white worm, which clings to the inside of the berry after it is picked. This is the larva of an oval, pale, dull yellow beetle, which is densely clothed with short, fine, gray hairs. The beetle is represented enlarged in Figure 649 ; it measures about three twentieths of an inch in length. This insect is also injurious in the adult state, as it feeds on the bios- FlG ' 649- soms of the raspberry. The family HISTERID^; (His-ter'i-dae) includes certain easily recognized beetles which are found about carrion and other decomposing substances. They are mostly small, short, rounded, or somewhat square-shaped beetles, of a shining black color, with the-wing covers marked by lines of fine punctures and truncate behind, leaving two segments of the abdomen exposed (Fig. 650). In some species the wing-covers are marked with red. FIG. 6 5 o. The family NITIDULTD.E (Nit-i-du'li-dae) com- prises small, somewhat flattened beetles. With many spe- cies the prothorax has wide, thin margins, and the wing- covers are more or less truncate, so as to leave the tip of the 542 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. abdomen exposed ; but sometimes the elytra are entire. The tarsi are usually five-jointed, with the fourth segment very small ; they are more or less dilated ; the posterior coxae are flat, not sulcate ; the anterior coxae are transverse ; and the abdomen has five free, ventral segments. One of the most common representatives of this family is Ips fasciatus (Ips fas-ci-a'tus). (Fig. 651.) It is a shining black species, with two con- FIG. 6 5 i. spicuous, interrupted, reddish bands across the wing-covers. The family TROGOSITID^E (Trog-o-sit'i-dae) includes ob- long, somewhat flattened beetles, of a black or reddish-black color. Most of them live under bark; but some are found in granaries. They differ from members of the preceding family in having slender tarsi, with the first segment very short. The family MONOTOMID^E (Mon-o-tom'i-das) is composed of a few small, depressed beetles, found mostly under the bark of trees. The wing-covers are truncate behind, leaving the last abdominal segment exposed. The family LATHRIDIID^E (Lath-ri-di'i-dae) includes very small beetles, which live under bark and stones and are sometimes caught flying in twilight. They are oblong; the wing-covers are usually wider than the prothorax and entirely cover the abdomen. The family DERODONTID^; (Der-o-don'ti-dae) is repre- sented by a single species found in the East and two found in Oregon and northward. The eastern species is a small brown beetle with a tubercle on each side inside the eye. The family BYRRHID^: (Byr'rhi-dae) or t\\Q pill-beetles are short, very convex beetles of small or moderate size ; some, however, are half an inch in length. The body is clothed with hairs or minute scales. The legs can be folded up very compactly, the tibia usually having a furrow for the recep- tion of the tarsus. These beetles are found upon walks and COLEOPTERA. 543 at the roots of trees and grass ; a few live under the bark of trees. The family GEORYSSID^ (Ge-o-rys'si-dse) includes only two American species. " They arc small, rounded, convex, roughly sculptured, black insects, found at the margin of streams, on wet sand ; they cover themselves with a mass of mud, so that no part of the insect is visible." (LeConte and Horn.) The family PARNID^E (Par'ni-dae) includes small water beetles, in which the legs are not fitted for swimming. The tarsi are five-jointed ; the first four segments of the tarsi are short and equal ; the fifth is longer than the others con- joined ; the tarsal claws are unusually large. The body is clothed with fine, silken hairs, which retain a film of air when the insect is beneath the water. These beetles are found adhering to stones or plants beneath the surface of the water. The larva of PscpJiemis lecontei (Pse-phe'nus le-con'te-i) is common in the East, clinging to the lower surface of stones in rapid streams; and we have found it in muck near a spring. It is very flat and circular in outline (Fig. 652), and measures about five sixteenths of an inch in length. It is rarely recognized as an insect by the young collector. Other larvae of this family have similar habits, and resemble this species in form except that the margin of the body is notched between the segments. FIG. 652. The family HETEROCERID^E (Het-e-ro- cer'i-dae) includes only the genus Heterocerns (Het-e-roc'e- rus). These beetles " are oblong or subelongate, oval, densely clothed with short silky pubescence, very finely punctate, and of a brown color, with the elytra usually vari- egated with undulated bands or spots of a yellow color. They live in galleries which they excavate in sand or mud at the margin of bodies of water, and, when disturbed, run from their galleries and take flight." (LeConte and Horn.) 544 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The family DASCYLLID.E (Das-cyl'li-dae) includes certain beetles that live on plants, usually near the water. The legs are short with slender tibiae ; the tarsi are five-jointed ; the posterior coxae are transverse, and dilated into a plate partly covering the femora ; the anterior coxae are transverse ; and the abdomen has five free, ventral segments, the fifth rounded at tip. About fifty species occur in North America. The larvae, of several species at least, live in rotten wood. The family RHIPICERID^: (Rhip-i-cer'i dae) is represented in this country by a very small number of species, which are most commonly found on cedars. The antennae are serrate in the females, frequently flabellate in the males. The an- terior and middle coxae are conical and prominent, the former with large trochantins ; the posterior coxae are transverse, and dilated into a small plate partly covering the femora. Family ELATERID/E (El-a-ter'i-dae). The Click-beetles or Elaters (El'a-ters}. There is hardly a country child that has not been enter- tertained by the acrobatic performances of the long, tidy- appearing beetles called snapping-bugs, click-beetles, or skip-jacks (Fig. 653). Touch one of them and it at once curls up its legs, and drops as if shot ; it usually lands on its back, and lies there for a time as if dead. Suddenly there is a click, and the insect pops up into the air several inches. If it comes down on its back, it tries again and again until it succeeds in striking on its feet, and then it runs off. We remember well carrying these creatures into the old district schoolhouse, where all lessons had to be learned from books, and where Nature was never given a chance to teach us anything. Here, with one eye on the teacher and one on this interesting jumper laid on our book behind the desk, we found a most fascinating occupation for the tedi- ous moments. But the end was always the same : the COLEOPTERA. 545 beetle jumped so high that it betrayed us and was liber- ated, and we were disgraced. Our common species of click-beetles are mostly small or of medium size, ranging from one tenth to three fourths of an inch in length. A few species are larger, some reaching the length of nearly two inches. The majority of the species are of a uniform brownish color; some are black or grayish, and some are conspicuously spotted (Fig. 654). The body is elongated, somewhat flattened, and tapers more or less towards each end ; the antennae are moderately elongated, and more or less FlG serrate ; the first and second abdominal seg- ments are not grown together on the ventral side; and the hind coxae are each furnished with a groove for the reception of the femur. The larvae of click-beetles are long, narrow, worm-like creatures, very even in width, with a very hard covering, and are brownish or yellowish white in color (Figs. 655 and FIG. 655. 654. A click- beetle. Drasterius dorsalis, natural si/e and enlarged. FIG. 656. 656). They are commonly known as wire-worms, a name suggested by the form and hardness of the body. Some wire-worms live under the bark of trees and in rotten wood ; but many of them live in the ground, and feed on seeds and the roots of grass and grain. In fact there is hardly a cultivated plant that they do not infest ; and, working as they do beneath the surface of the ground, it is extremely difficult to destroy them. Not only do they infest a great variety of plants, but they are very apt to attack them at the most susceptible period of their growth, before they have attained sufficient size and strength to withstand the attack ; and often seed is destroyed before it has germinated. Thus fields of corn or other grain are 546 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. ruined at the outset. The appearance of these insects when in the ground, as seen through the glass side of one of our root- cage s, is shown in Fig. 657. The re is a vast number of species of click- beetles ; more than five hun- FIG. 658. Larva of Cryptohypnus abbre- : a, clypeus; fi, mandible; c, maxilla ; d, gula; e, caudal segment. FIG. 659. Larva of Drasterius clcgans : a, clypeus ; />, mandible ; c\ maxilla ; them are often seen flying through the air during warm autumn afternoons. More than one hundred North Amer- ican species have been described ; of these seventy belong to the genus ApJtodins (A-pho'di-us). One of the more common species is Apliodins fimctarius (A. fim-e-ta'ri-us), which is about one third inch in length, and is easily recog- nized by its red wing-covers. COLEOPTERA. 559 III. The Earth-boring Dung-beetles. These beetles are of a rounded convex form (Fig. 676). They differ from all other dung-beetles in having the antennae eleven-jointed, and in the labrum and man- dibles being visible from above. This is a small group, less than twenty North American species having been described. The popular name is derived from that of the typical genus, FlG 6?6 Gcotrupes (Ge-o-tru'pes), which signifies earth-boring. Those species the habits of which are known live in excrement. The females bore holes into the earth either beneath the dung or near it ; into these holes they convey a quantity of the dung: this is to serve as food for the larvae, an ego- be- o o o ing laid in each hole. This is an approach to the peculiar habits of the tumble-bugs. IV. The Skin-beetles. The members of this group are oblong, convex species, in which the surface of the body and wing-covers is usually very rough, and covered with a crust of dirt, which is removed with great dif- ficulty. They are small or of medium size ; our most common species measure from one third to one half inch in length. The abdomen is FIG. 6 77 . covered by the elytra ; the feet are hardly fitted for digging, but the femora of the front legs are greatly di- lated. Our species all belong to the genus Trox (Fig. 677). They feed upon dried, decomposing animal matter ; many species are found about the refuse of tanneries, and upon the hoofs and hair of decaying animals. THE LAMELLICORN LEAF-CHAFERS. The leaf-chafers are herbivorous insects which in the adult state usually feed upon the leaves of trees, but many of the species devour the pollen and petals of flowers. In the larval state some of these insects are found in rotten wood ; others live in the ground, where they feed upon the roots of grass and other plants. These larvae are thick, 560 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. FIG. 678. fleshy grubs, with well-developed legs (Fig. 6/8). The caudal segments of the abdomen are very large, and appear black on account of the large amount of dirt in the intestine. The body is strongly curved, so that the larvae can crawl only with great difficulty; when in the ground they usually lie on their backs. The following groups include the more important repre- sentatives of this division : I. The May-beetles or June-bugs. During the warm evenings of May and June we throw open our windows so that we may feel the refreshing coolness of the night air and the inspiration of the new summer. Suddenly, as we sit working or reading, our peace is disturbed by a buzzing object which whirls above us. Then comes a sharp thud and silence. A little later the scratching of six pairs of tiny claws tells us the whereabouts of the intruder. But so familiar are we with his kind that we need not look to know- how he appears, the mahogany-brown blunderer, with yellowish wings sticking out untidily from under his polished wing-covers. Although these insects are beetles, and attract our atten- tion each year in Ma} 7 , they have received the infelicitous title of June-bugs. They are more properly termed May- beetles. The May-beetles belong to the genus (Lach-no-ster'na), of which we have more than sixty species. The adults frequent!}' do much injury by eating the foliage of trees. In the case of large trees this injury usually passes unnoticed ; but small trees are often completely defoliated by them. When trouble- some, they can be easily gathered by shaking them from trees upon sheets. Figure 679 represents a common species. Lachnosterna FIG. 679. COLEOPTERA. 561 The larvae of the different species of May-beetles are commonly classed together under the name " white grubs." They are often great pests in meadows and in cultivated fields. We have known large strawberry plantations to be destroyed by them, and have seen large patches of ground in pastures from which the dead sod could be rolled as one would roll a carpet from a floor, the roots having been all destroyed and the ground just beneath the surface finely pulverized by these larvae. No satisfactory method of fighting this pest has been discovered as yet. If swine be turned into fields infested by white grubs they will root them up and feed upon them. We have destroyed great numbers of the beetles by the use of trap-lanterns, but many beneficial insects were destroyed at the same time. II. The Rose-bugs. The common rose-bug, Macrodactylus snbspinosns (Mac-ro-dac'ty-lus sub-spi-no'sus), is a well-known pest. It is a slender beetle, tapering before and behind, and measuring three eighths inch in length (Fig. 680). It is thickly clothed with fine, yellow, scale-like hairs, which give it a yellow color; the legs are long, slender, and of a pale-red color. These beetles FIG 680. appear in early summer, and often do great injury to roses and other flowers, and to the foliage of various fruit-trees and shrubs. This is a very difficult pest to con- trol. The best method now known is to use Paris-green when safe to do so ; in other cases the beetles should be collected by jarring them into a large funnel which is fitted into a can. The larvae of rose-bugs feed on the roots of plants. III. The Shining Leaf -chafers. -These insects resemble the May-beetles in form, but can be distinguished from them by the position of the hinder pair of spiracles, which are visible on the sides below the edges of the wing-covers; and they differ from the other leaf-chafers in which the spiracles are in this position in that the tarsal claws are of unequal size, one claw of each pair being larger than the other. * 562 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. These beetles are usually polished, and many of them are of brilliant colors. To this family belong the most beautiful beetles known, many appearing as if made of burnished gold or silver, or other metal. The Goldsmith-beetle, Cotalpa lanigera (Co-tal'pa la- nig'e-ra). This is one of our most beautiful species. It measures a little less than one inch in length, and is a broad oval in shape. It is of a lemon-yellow color above, glittering like burnished gold on the top of the head and thorax; the under side of the body is copper-colored and thickly covered with whitish wool. The Spotted Pelidnota, Pclidnota punctata (Pel-id-no'ta punc-ta'ta). This beetle is reddish brown above, with three black spots on each wing- cover and one on each side of the prothorax (Fig. 68 1). The scutellum, base of the head, and the entire body beneath are of a deep bronzed-green color. The adult is commonly found feeding on the leaves of grape. The larva feeds upon decaying roots and stumps of various trees. The Light-loving Anomala, Anoinala lucicola (A-nom'a-la lu-cic'o-la). This also feeds on the leaves of grape. It resembles the preceding species in form, but is much smaller, measuring only about one third inch in length. It is of a pale dull yellow color; the prothorax is black, margined with dull yellow, and the hinder part of the head and the ventral side of the body are also black ; sometimes the abdomen i.s brown. As this beetle appears early in the summer, it can be safely destroyed with Paris-green, for the subsequent rains will wash the poison from the vines before the fruit ripens. IV. The Rhinoceros-beetles. The name rhinoceros-beetles was suggested for this group by the fact that in many species the male bears a horn on the middle of the head. In addi- tion to this horn there may be one or more horns on the COLEOPTERA. 563 thorax. These beetles are of medium or large size ; in fact, the largest beetles known belong to this group. As with the flower-beetles, the claws of the tarsi are of equal size, but the fore coxae are transverse, and not promi- nent. One of the largest of our rhinoceros-beetles is Dynastes tityrus (Dy-nas'tes tit'y-rus). This is of a greenish-gray color, with scattered black spots on the wing-covers, or, if only recently transformed, of a uniform dark brown. The FIG. 682. male (Fig. 682) bears a prominent horn on the top of his head, and a large one and two small ones on his prothorax. The female has only a tubercle on the head. This insect is found in the Southern States ; the larva lives in rotten wood. In the far West there is a closely allied species, Dynastes grantii (D. gran'ti-i), in which the large horn on the thorax is twice as long as in D. tityrus. In the West Indies there occurs a species, Dynastes Jiercides (D. her'cu-les), which measures six inches in length. & Several other genera occur in this country, in some of which the males have prominent horns ; in others the horns are represented by tubercles, or are wanting. The following species represents the latter type. The Sugar-cane Beetle, Ligyrus rugiccps (Lig'y-rus ru'gi-ceps). This beetle is a serious pest in the cane-fields of Louisiana, and it sometimes injures corn. Figure 683 represents the adult, and its method of attacking a plant. 564 THE STUD Y OF INSECTS. V. The Flower-beetles. The flower-beetles are so called because many of them are often seen feeding upon pollen and flying from flower to flower. These beetles are some- what flattened, or nearly level on the back ; the claws FIG. 683. The Sugar-cane Beetle. of the tarsi are of equal size, and the fore coxae are coni- cal and prominent. Nearly sixty species occur in this country. COLEOPTERA. 565 The Hermit Flower-beetle, Osmodenna eremicola (Os-mo- der'ma er-e-mic'o-la). This is one of the larger of our Flower-beetles (Fig. 684). It is of a deep mahogany-brown color, nearly smooth, and highly polished. It is sup- posed that the larva lives on decaying wood in forest-trees. The Rough Flower-beetle, Osmoderma scabra (O. sca'bra), is closely allied to the preceding. It is not quite as large, meas- uring about one inch in length. It is purplish black, and the wing-covers are roughened with irregular, coarsely-punc- tured striae. It is nocturnal, concealing FlG - 68 4- itself during the day in the crevices and hollows of trees. The larva lives in the decaying wood of apple and cherry, consuming the wood and inducing more rapid decay. The Bumble Flower-beetle, Euphoria inda (Eu-pho'ri-a in'da). The most common of our Flower-beetles, at least in the North, is a yellowish-brown one, with the wing-covers sprinkled all over with small, irregular black spots (Fig. 685). It is one of the first in- sects to appear in the spring. It flies near the surface of the ground with a loud humming o o sound, like that of a bumble-bee, for which it is often mistaken. During the summer months it is not seen ; but a new brood appears about the middle of September. The adult is a general feeder occur- ring upon flowers, eating the pollen ; upon corn-stalks and green corn in the milk, sucking the juices ; and upon peaches, grapes, and apples. Occasionally the ravages are very serious. The genus EitpJioria represents well the form of the more typical Flower-beetles, which are distinguished by the margin of each wing-cover having a large wavy indentation near its base, which renders the side pieces of the meso- 566 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. thorax visible from above. This indentation makes it un- necessary for these insects to raise or expand their wing- covers when flying, as most beetles do, as they are able to pass the wings out from the sides. The Sad Flower-beetle, EnpJioria melancholica (Eu-pho'- ri-a mel-an-chol'i-ca). This is a much smaller species than the Bumble Flower-beetle, measuring hardly half an inch in length. It is almost black, with irregular transverse white lines on the wing-covers. We have received several reports of its producing injuries similar to those of E. inda. The Fig-eater, Allorhina nitida (Al-lo-rhi'na nit'i-da). This species extends over the Atlantic slope, and is very common in the South. It is a green, velvety insect, measur- ing from two thirds of an inch to one inch in length. It is o o somewhat pointed in front, and usually has the sides of the thorax and elytra brownish yellow. These beetles often fly in en-eat numbers at night, makinu a loud buzzing noise similar O ^5 _? O to that of the May-beetles. In fact, in the South the term June-bug is often applied to this insect. The larva; feed upon the roots of grass and other plants. Sometimes they leave the ground and crawl from one place to another. When they do so they, strangely enough, crawl upon their backs, making no use of their short legs. On one occasion we saw them crawling over the pavements on the Capitol grounds at Washington in such numbers that bushels of them were swept up and carted away. The family SPONDYLID.-E (Spon-dyl'i-dae), or aberrant long-horned beetles, includes only four North American FIG. 686. FIG. 687. FIG. 6S8. COLEOPTERA. 56? species. These live under the bark of pine-trees. They are closely allied to the Cerambycidae, but differ in the form of the tarsi and in the structure of the antennas. The fourth segment of the tarsus, although much reduced in size, is distinctly visible ; the first three segments are but slightly dilated, and the third is either bilobed or not (Fig. 686). The segments of the antennas have deep impressions, in which are situated the organs of special sense (Fig. 687). The most common species is Parandra brunnca (Pa-ran'dra brun'ne-a) (Fig. 688) ; this insect is of a mahogany-btowii color. Family CERAMBYCID,*: (Cer-am-byc'i-dae). The Long-horned Beetles or Cerambycids (Ce-ram'by-cids}. This is a very large family, there being about six hun- dred described species in North America alone. As a rule the beetles are of medium or large size, and graceful in form ; many species are beautiful in color. The body is oblong, often cylindrical. The antennae are long, often longer than the whole body ; but except in one genus, Prionus, they are only eleven-jointed, as with most beetles. The legs are also long, and the tarsi are apparently four-jointed, the fourth segment being very small and hidden ; the third segment of the tarsi is strongly bilobed (Fig. 689). FlG - 68 9- They are strong fliers and swift runners ; but many of them have the habit of remaining motionless on the limbs of trees for long intervals, and when in this apparent trance they suffer themselves to be picked up. But, when once caught, many species make an indignant squeak- ing by rubbing the prothorax and mesothorax to- gether. The larvae are borers, living within the solid parts of trees or shrubs, or beneath bark. They are white or yellowish grubs. The body is soft, and tapers slightly from head to tail (Fig. 690) ; the jaws are powerful, enabling these insects to bore into the 568 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. hardest wood. The larval state usually lasts two or three years. The pupa state is passed within the burrow made by the larva ; frequently a chamber is made by partitioning off a section of the burrow with a plug of chips ; but some- times the larva builds a ring of chips around itself just beneath the bark before changing to a pupa. The pupal state is comparatively short, lasting only a few days or weeks. This family comprises three subfamilies, which are sep- arated by Le Conte and Horn as follows : A. Sides of the prothorax with a sharp margin, p. 568. AA. Prothorax not margined. B. Front tibiae not grooved ; palpi never acute at tip. p. 569. CERAMBYCIN/E. BB. Front tibiae obliquely grooved on the inner side; palpi with the last segment cylindrical and pointed, p. 572 ...... LAMIIN^E. Subfamily PRIONIN^E (Pri-o-ni'nae). The Prionids (Pri-o'nids). The larger of the Long-horned Beetles constitute this subfamily. They are distinguished from other Cerambycids by having the sides of the prothorax prolonged outwards into a thin margin, which is more or less toothed. The win body is comparatively soft ; the head is broad, vertical, and abruptly narrowed into a neck ; the prothorax is narrower COLEOPTERA. 587 than the wing-covers, which are soft and flexible ; the legs are long and slender ; the hind tarsi are four-jointed, and the fore and middle tarsi are five-jointed. These beetles are found on foliage and on flowers, on which they feed in the adult state ; some of the species are very common on goldenrod in the autumn ; and several species feed on the leaves of potato. The blister-beetles are so called because they are used for making blister-plasters. The beetles are killed, dried, and pulverized, and the powder thus obtained is made into a paste, which when applied to the skin produces a blister. The species most commonly used is a European one, com- monly known as the Spanish-fly; but our American species possess the same blistering property. The transformations of blister-beetles are remarkable ; not only do these insects undergo wonderful changes in form, but the number of these changes is greater than is usual with insects. On this account their mode of develop- ment is termed hypermetamorphosis. The beetles lay their eggs in the ground. The newly- hatched larva is active, running about in search of its food, which consists, in some species, of the eggs of locusts, in others of the egg and honey of some solitary bee. In the case of those species that live in the nests of bees the larva finds its home in a curious way. Instead of hunt- ing for a nest it merely climbs a plant, and remains near a flower till it has a chance to seize hold of a bee visiting the flower. The larva clings to the bee until she goes to her nest, then, letting go of the bee, it remains in the cell and is shut up there with the egg of the bee and the store of food which she provides for her young. The beetle larva then devours the egg; after which it moults and undergoes a change of form, becoming a clumsy creature, which feeds upon the honey. Several other changes in form occur be- fore the beetle reaches the adult stage. The wonderful instinct by which the larvae of these 588 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. blister-beetles find their way to the nests of solitary bees has not yet reached perfection ; for many of the larvae at- tach themselves to flies, wasps, honey-bees, and other flower- visiting insects, and merely gain useless transportation thereby. Nearly two hundred species of blister-beetles have been found in this country. The majority of our common species belong to the genera named below. Mcloe. The beetles of this genus present an exception to the characters of the Coleoptera, in that the wing-covers, instead of meeting in a straight line down the middle of the back, overlap at the base (Fig. 717). These wing-covers are short, and the wings are lacking. These beetles are called oil-beetles in England, on account of the yel- lowish liquid which oozes from their joints in large drops when they are handled. Our most common species is the Buttercup Oil-beetle, Meloe augiisticollis (Mel'o-e an-gus-ti-coriis). It may be found in meadows and pastures feeding on the leaves of various species of buttercups. Nemo gnat ha. The species of the genus NeinognatJia (Ne-mog'na-tha) are remarkable for having the maxillae developed into a long sucking-tube, which is sometimes as long as the body, and which resembles somewhat the suck- ing-tube of a butterfly. A similar modification of the maxillae occurs in the genus Gnatlriiiin (Gnath'i-um), which differs from Nemognatha in having a slight thickening of the outer segments of the antennae. The species of these two genera occur chiefly in the South and West. Our most common species of blister-beetles in the East belong to the genus Epicanta (Ep-i-cau'ta). These insects feed in the adult state upon the leaves of potato, and upon the pollen of goldenrod ; the larvae, so far as is known, are parasitic in the egg-cases of locusts. The Pennsylvania Blister-beetle, Epicanta pennsylvanica, (E. penn-syl-van'i-ca), COLEOPTERA. 589 is of a uniform black color (Fig. 718). Epicauta cinerea (E. ci-ne're-a) is sometimes clothed throughout with an ash-colored pubescence, and sometimes the wing-covers are black, except a narrow gray margin ; the two varieties were formerly consid- ered distinct species: the first is commonly known as the ash-colored Blister-beetle, the last as the Margined Blister-beetle. Another common spe- cies is the Striped Blister-beetle, Epicanta vittata (E. vit-ta'- ta) ; this species is yellowish or reddish above, with the head and prothorax marked with black, and with two black stripes on each wing-cover. In the far West very many species of blister-beetles occur so many, in fact, that we cannot undertake to specify them here. The family RHIPIPHORID^E (Rhip-i-phor'i-dae) includes a small number of beetles, which are very remarkable in structure and habits. The wing-covers are usually shorter than the abdomen, and narrowed behind (Fig. 719); sometimes they are very small, and in one exotic genus they are wanting in the female, which lacks the wings also, and resembles a larva in form. The antennae are FIG. 719. pectinate or flabellate in the males, and frequently serrate in the females. The adult insects are found on flowers. The larvae that are known are parasites, some in the nests of wasps, and some on cockroaches. The family STYLOPID.E (Sty-lop'i-dce) includes a small number of minute insects which differ so much from ordi- nary beetles that they have been classed by some writers as a distinct order, the Strepsiptera (Strep-sip'te-ra). In the males the elytra are reduced to slender, leathery, club-shaped appendages; while the wings are very large, fan-shaped, and furnished with a few diverging veins. The females have neither wings nor elytra, and resemble a larva in form. They are always contained in the pupa case in the body of a wasp or bee, which they infest parasitically. The point 590 THE Sl^UDY OF INSECTS. of attack of these parasites is between two abdominal segments of the host. The presence of one of these para- sites is indicated by an irregularity in the outline of the abdomen of the infested wasp or bee; and, too, the heads of the pupa cases of the parasites can be seen project- ing from the suture. " The head of the pupa case of the male is convex, that of the female is flat ; specimens con- taining male pups can be kept confined with proper food until the parasite is hatched." (Le Conte and Horn.) Two genera occur in this country, Sty lops (Sty'lops), which infests bees of the genus Andrena (An-dre'na), and Xcnos (Xe'nos), which infest wasps of the genus Polistes(o- lis'tes). Certain foreign genera infest ants, cockroaches, and homopterous insects. Suborder RllVNCHOPHORA (Rhyn-choph'o-ra). The Snout-beetles. This suborder includes the insects commonly called snout-beetles, of which ten families are represented in North America. With these insects the head is more or less prolonged into a beak, which is sometimes longer than the re- mainder of the body. The most distinctive characteristics of this suborder are the absence of the gula, there being only a single gular suture (Fig. 720, gs\ and the fact that the epimera of the prothorax meet on the middle line behind the prosternum (Fig. 720). A monograph of the North American species of this suborder by Le Conte and Horn is published by the American Philosophical So- ciety, Philadelphia. The family RHINOMACERID^: (Rhin-o-ma- FIG. 720. cer'i-dae) includes a small number of Snout- beetles in which the elytra have no fold on the lower sur- face near the outer edge, but in which the labrum is distinct. The head is prominent, not deflexed ; the snout is as long as the prothorax, rather flat, narrowest about the middle, wider COLEOPTERA. 59 1 at base and tip ; the elytra are rounded at the tip and en- tirely cover the abdomen. These beetles infest the stami- nate flowers of coniferous trees, in which the eggs are laid. The family RHYNCHITID/E (Rhyn-chit'i-dae) includes Snout-beetles in which the elytral fold is very feeble, the la- brum is wanting, and in which the mandibles are toothed both on the outer and inner side. The mandibles can be spread widely, and when closed the outer tooth at the end of each projects forward so that two small acute teeth seem to project from the mouth. The most common member of this family is Rhynchites bicolor (Rhyn-chi'tes bi'co-lor) (Fig. 721). This is red above, except the snout, and black below ; the body, not in- cluding the snout, is about one fourth inch long, J the snout is half that length. The adults are often p IG 72I _ abundant on wild roses. The family ATTELABID/E (At-te-lab'i-dae), or Leaf-rolling Weevils is composed of beetles that have neither an elytral fold nor a labrum, and in which the mandibles are flat, pincer-shaped, and toothed on the inner side. The elytra do not entirely cover the abdomen, and each is separately rounded at the tip. Only five species are known from this country, four from the Atlantic States, and one from New Mexico; all belong to the genus Attelabus (At-tera-bus). The females provide for their young in a very remarkable way. They make compact thimble-shaped rolls from the leaves of trees (Fig. 722) and lay a single egg in each. The larvae feed on the inner parts of these rolls, and when full grown enter the ground to transform. Sometimes these rolls are found hanging by a narrow FIG. '22. piece to the leaf from which they were made, and sometimes they are found lying on the ground separated from the leaf. The family BYRSOPID.E (Byr-sop'i-dae) is represented in North America by a single species, TJiccesternus Jiumcralis 59- THE STUDY OF INSECTS. (Thec-e-ster'nus hu-mer-a'lis), of the central portion of the United States. It usually lives near the surface of the ground, but has been found attacking grape-vines and hick- ory. It is a grayish beetle, one third to one half inch in length, and with its wing-covers roughened by rows of tu- bercles. Its distinctive structural characters are given in the table of families. Family OTIORHYNCHID^E (O-ti-o-rhyn'chi-dae). The Scarred Snout-beetles. This is one of the larger of the families of snout-beetles, including more than one hundred North American species. The most distinctive characteristic of these insects is the presence in the pupa state, and sometimes also in recently matured adults, of an appendage on each mandible, and in the adult state of a scar indicating the place from which the appendage has fallen. This scar is on the anterior face of the mandible, and frequently at the tip of a slight process. Many species of this family are beautifully ornamented with scales which resemble in a striking manner the scales on the wings of butterflies. Among the more important species are the following : Fuller's Rose-beetle, Arai/iigns fnlleri (A-ram'i-gus ful'le- ri). This is an oval, black snout-beetle, lightly covered with dark-brown scales, and about one fourth inch in length. It is very destructive to roses ; the larvae feed upon the roots, and the adults de- stroy the leaves, flowers, and buds. In Cali- fornia it is sometimes a pest in orange-groves. The Imbricated Snout-beetle, Epic&rns ini- bricatus (Ep-i-cae'rus im-bri-ca'tus) is usually a FIG. 723. dull, silvery-white beetle with brown markings ; but the species is quite variable in color. It is represented somewhat enlarged by Figure 723. It is omnivorous, gnaw- ing holes in various garden vegetables and fruits, and in the bark of trees and shrubs. COLEOPTERA. 593 Family CURCULIONID/E (Cur-cu-li-on'i-dae). The Curculios (Cnr-cu li-os) or Weevils. The Curculionidae is the most important of the families of snout-beetles ; it includes more than one half of all the Rhynchophora found in this country, and some of the most destructive insect pests. In this family there is on the lower side of each wing-cover a strong fold near the outer margin, which limits a deep groove in which the upper edge of the abdomen fits; the mandibles have no scar; the antennae are usually elbowed, and have a ringed or solid club ; the tarsi are usually dilated, with the third segment bilobed and spongy beneath ; in a few cases the tarsi are narrow, but not spinose beneath. The larvae are soft, white, maggot-like grubs destitute of feet. They feed chiefly on fruits, seeds, and nuts ; but all parts of plants are subject to their attacks. In laying her eggs, the female first bores a hole with her snout, then drops an egg into this hole, and finally pushes the egg to the bottom of the hole with her snout. In many species the snout is highly developed for this purpose ; sometimes it is twice as long as the remainder of the body. This is well shown in the acorn-weevils and the nut-weevils, which belong to the genus Balaninus (Ba-lan'i-nus). Figure 724 repre- sents Balanimis qucrcus (B. quer'cus) resting FlG - ? 24 - on an acorn ; the specimen figured, when found had her snout inserted in the acorn up to the antennae. Of the closely allied species B. rectus (B. rec'tus) breeds in acorns, B. nasicns (B. na-si'cus) in hickory-nuts, and B. caryatrypes (B. car-y-a-try'pes) in chestnuts. Probably the most important member of this family from an economic standpoint is the Plum Curculio, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Con-o-tra-che'lus nen'u-phar). This is the insect that stings plums, often destroying a large proportion of the 594 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. fruit ; the larva is also the well-known grub or " worm " of " wormy " cherries. The presence of this insect in an orchard can be determined early in the season by a peculiar mark it makes when laying its eggs in the young fruit. The female beetle makes an incision, with her snout, through the skin of the fruit. In this incision she lays a single egg, which she pushes with her snout to the bottom of the cav- ity that she has prepared. She then makes a crescent- shaped incision in front of the one containing the egg. This last cut undermines the egg, leaving it in a little flap. The larvae feed within the fruit. In the case of plums the in- fested fruit falls to the ground ; but not so with cherries. When full grown the larvae usually go into the ground to transform ; a few transform within the fruit. This species infests nectarines, apricots, and peaches as well as plums and cherries. This insect is fought in two ways : the beetles are jarred from the trees upon sheets in early spring, and destroyed before they have laid their eggs ; they are also poisoned by spraying the trees with Paris-green-water before the fruit is large enough for them to oviposit in it The adult beetle feeds upon the foliage, and can thus be poisoned. As yet this species does not occur on the Pacific coast, and the greatest care should be taken that it be not intro- duced there. The Apple-weevil, Anthononms qnadrigibbns (An-thon'o- musquad-ri-gib'bus), infests the fruit of apple. The specific name was suggested by the fact that there are two wart-like projections near the hinder end of each wing-cover. The Strawberry-weevil, AntJionoinus sigimtns (A. sig- r~* na'tus), is sometimes a serious pest in strawberry ^jSKSpli^ J ^yp^^ plantations. The adult beetle (Fig. 725) punctures FIG. 725. the pedicel of the flower a short distance below the buds, and lays her eggs within the buds. The buds drop to the ground, and the larvae, one in each, develop within them. The family BRENTHID.-E (Bren'thi-dae) is confined chiefly COLEOPTERA. 595 to tropical regions, and, except in the far South, only a single species occurs in this country. This species is the Northern Brenthid, Eupsalis initnita (Eu'psa-lis mi-nu'ta), which is represented by Figure 726. In the female the head is pro- longed into a slender snout ; but in the male the snout is broad and flat, and is armed with a pair of powerful jaws. These are weapons of offence, for the males fight desperately for their mates; and, too, the males are generally larger than the females an unusual occurrence among insects. It is interesting, as has been pointed out by Mr. A. R. Wallace in his " Malay Archipelago," "as bearing on the question of sexual selection, that in this case, as in the stag-beetles, where the males fight together, they should be not only better armed, but also much larger than the females." The Northern Brenthid is found upon oak-trees, in the solid wood of which the larvae bore, and is widely distributed over the United States and Canada. One species of BrcntJius is found in Southern Florida and two in Lower California. In this genus the snout is slender in both sexes. The only other representative of this family that occurs on this continent north of Mexico is the Sweet Potato Root- borer, Cylas formicarius (Cy'las for-mi-ca'ri-us), of Louisiana and Florida. This beetle is somewhat ant-like in form ; the color of the elytra, head, and snout is bluish black, that of the prothorax reddish brown. Family CALANDRID/E (Ca-lan'dri-dse). The Bill-bugs. To this family belong some of our most common snout- beetles. Here the lateral edge of the metathorax and of the abdomen fits into a groove in the wing-cover, and the surface of the wing-cover in this groove has a pearly lustre ; 596 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. the pygidium of both sexes is undivided, and may be cov- ered or uncovered by the wing-covers, but is not surrounded at the edge by them, as in the Scolytidae ; the tibiae are not serrate ; the antennae are elbowed ; and the labrum is want- ing. The larvae of the larger species bore in the stems of plants, while those of the smaller species infest grains and seeds. Among the more common members of this family are several species of the genus Sp/ten0p/iorus(Sphe-noph'o-rus); one of these is represented by Figure 727. These are of medium or rather large size, and are often marked in a very characteristic manner by longitudinal, elevated bands of darker color. One of the most important members of the family, FIG. 727. from an economic standpoint, is the Rice-weevil, Ca- landra oryzcs (Ca-lan'dra o-ry'zae). This is a small snout- beetle, measuring only one fifth inch in length. It is usually black, but sometimes it is of pale-chestnut color, or some shade between the two. It is exceedingly abundant, espe- cially in the Southern States, where it does great injury to stored grain of all kinds. Family SCOLYTID.-E (Sco-lyt'i-dae). The Engraver-beetles, If the bark be pulled from dead branches or trunks of trees, the inner layer and the sap-wood will be found to be ornamented in many cases with burrows of more or less regular form. These smoothly cut figures are the mines of the engraver-beetles. Many kinds of these engrav- ings can be found, each characteristic of a particular kind of engraver-beetle. A common pattern is shown in Figure 728. The beetles that do this work- are mostly of cylindrical form and of small size ; many species are almost microscopic, and the larger ones rarely exceed a quarter of an inch in length. They are usually brown, sometimes black; and COLEOPTERA. 597 with many the hind end of the body is very blunt, as if cut off. The antennae are elbowed or bent in the middle, and are clubbed at the tip ; the tibiae are usually serrate ; the FIG. 728. pygidium is surrounded at the edge by the wing-covers, which have the fold on the inner surface well developed. The members of this family feed almost exclusively on woody plants. Most of the species make burrows between the bark and the wood ; but many species bore directly into the solid wood, and one well-known pest lives in the roots of herbaceous plants. In the case of the kind of burrow figured above and other similar ones the central tunnel is made by the mother beetle. While doing this she makes a series of niches along each side of this tunnel, and lays an egg in each. When the larvae hatch, each one deepens its niche, and thus makes a burrow at right angles to that of the parent beetle. In the case of a European species, Touiicus typogra- pJins (Tom'i-cus ty-pog'ra-phus), Dr. K. Lindeman, a Russian naturalist, has discovered that the original tunnel is be- gun by the male, which makes a little chamber in the bark ; afterwards the female comes to him in this chamber, and later she continues the mine begun by her mate, making the long central tunnel from which the tunnels of her offspring extend. Thus we see that all of the members of a single o family have a share in making one of these engravings. It 598 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. is probable that the males of other species have similar habits, but how general this is has not yet been determined. The members of this family are among the most injuri- ous of the insect enemies of forest-trees. Frequently the trees are killed outright; in other cases, although the life of the tree is not endangered, the timber is greatly injured by the burrows. Occasionally fruit-trees are also injured by members of this family. Figure 729 represents one of the larger of our common species, Dendroctonus tenebrans (Den-droc'to-nus ten'e- brans). This is a light-yellowish beetle, which lives under the thick bark of pine logs and stumps. It is about one fourth of an inch in length. The Clover-root Borer, Hylesinns trifolii (Hy- FIG. 729. i es 'i_ nus tri-fo'li-i). This is a European insect, which has found its way to this country, and become a very serious pest in the Eastern States. It differs markedly from most of the members of this family in that it makes irregular burrows in the roots of herbaceous plants. It infests clover and allied plants. In many places in the East a large proportion of the two-year-old clover plants are infested by it. In the autumn larvae, pupae, and adults are found in the roots of such plants, and the adults remain here throughout the winter. The family ANTHRIBID^E (An-thrib'i-dae) includes a small number of snout-beetles, in which the fold on the lower surface of the wing-covers is present, the pygidium of both sexes is undivided, the antennae are not elbowed, and the labrum is present. The larvae, as a rule, infest seeds and the stems of plants , some of them are said to have short but well-developed legs. The larvae of the genus Brachytarsus (Brach-y-tar'sus), which are very small, are supposed to be parasitic on scale-insects. CHAPTER XXII. Order HYMENOPTERA (Hy-me-nop'te-ra). Bees, Wasps, Ants, and others. The members of this order have four wings ; these are membranous, and furnished with comparatively fevv or with no transverse veins. The hind wings are smaller than the fore wings. The month-parts are formed for biting and sacking. The abdomen in the females is usually furnished with a sting, piercer, or saw. The metamorphosis is complete. The bees, wasps, and ants are among the better-known insects, and will serve to give an idea of the characteristic appearance of the members of this order. They are chiefly insects of small or moderate size, and many of them abound wherever flowers bloom. From the earliest times they have been favorites with students of the habits of ani- mals, for among them we find the most wonderful develop- ments of instinctive powers. Many volumes have been written regarding their ways, and much remains to be dis- covered, even concerning our most common species. The name of the order is from two Greek words hymen, membrane, andflteron, a wing. It refers to the fact that the wings are of a delicate membranous texture ; but this characteristic is not distinctive, for it is possessed by the wings of many other insects. In the Hymenoptera the wings of each side are held to- gether by a row of hooks on the front margin of the hind 599 6oo THE STUDY OF INSECTS. wing. These hooks fasten to a fold in the hind margin of the front wing, so that the two wings present a continuous surface. (Fig. 730). in, FIG. 730. Wings of the honey-bee. With other insects the mouth-parts, if well developed, are formed either for biting or for sucking, but in this order they are adapted to serve both purposes (Fig. 73 iX The mandibles are fitted for biting, and the}' are sometimes very powerful. The maxilla;, in the typical members of the order, are long, membranous or leathery, and form a sheath to the labium, the three organs thus constituting an appara- tus for sucking or lapping liquid food. The maxillary and the labial palpi are present. FIG. 731- Head of The larvae of Hymenoptera are usually the honey-bee: a, J antenna; c, clypeus; footless, maggot-like creatures, incapable of , labrum; ;. man- dibles; >nx. maxilla; any extended motion, and entirely depend- ^- h htbial P al P us : A ent on the provision made for them by the adult insects. But in the two lower families the larva; are furnished with legs, and frequently have a striking resem blance to caterpillars, both in form and in habits. When the larvae are full grown they transform to inactive pupae, which H \ 'MEN OP TERA 60 1 have all of the limbs of the adult insect inclosed in sheaths, and folded upon the breast. With many species the larva, before changing to a pupa, spins a cocoon about its body. With some this cocoon is composed of comparatively loose silk, and resembles somewhat the cocoon of a moth. In others the cocoon is of a dense parchment-like texture, and in still others it resembles a very delicate foil. Although there are very many species of Hymenoptera, the number of families is not large. The following synopsis will aid the student in fixing in his mind the relationships of the different families : - SYNOPSIS OF THE HYMENOPTERA. THE BORING HYMENOPTERA, Suborder TEREBRANTIA. p. 610. The Plant-eating Hymenoptera. The Saw-flies, Family TENTHREDINID.E. p. 611. The Horn-tails, Family SIRICID^E. p. 614. The Gall-inhabiting Hymenoptera. The Gall-flies, Family CYNIPID/E. p 615. The Parasitic Hymenoptera. The Trigonalids, Family TRIGONALID.*:. p. 621. The Ichneumon-flies, Family ICHNEUMONID/E. p. 621. The Stephanids, Family STEPHANID.*. p. 624. The Braconids, Family BRACON1D.. p. 625. The Ensign-flies, Family EVANIID.B. p. 626. The Chalcis-flies, Family CHALCIDID/E. p. 628. The Proctotrupids, Family PROCTOTRUPID.. p. 630. THE STINGING HYMENOPTERA, Suborder ACULEATA. p. 631. The Pelecinus, Family PELECINID^E. p. 631. The Cuckoo-flies, Family CHRYSIDID./E p. 632. The Ants, Superfamily FORMICINA. p. 633. Family FORMICID^E. p. 640. Family PONERID/E. p. 642. Family MYRMICID^E. p. 642. The Digger-wasps, Superfamily SPHECTNA. p. 644. The Velvet-ants, Family MUTILLID/E. p. 648. The Scoliids, Family SCOLIID^. p. 649. The Sapygids, Family SAPYGID/E. p. 649. The Spider-wasps, Family POMPILID/E. p. 650. 6O2 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. The Thread-waisted Wasps, Family SPHECID/E. p. 650. The Ampulicids, Family AMPULICID.E. p. 647. The Larrids, Family LARRID^:. p. 652. The Bembecids, Family BEMBECID.'E. p. 652. The Nyssonids, Family NYSSONID.-E. p. 654. The Philanthids, Family PHILANTHID^E. p. 654. The Mimesids, Family MIMESID^E. p. 655. The Mellinids, Family MELLINID^. p. 647. The Pemphredonids, Family PEMPHREDONID^:. p. 655. The Crabronids, Family CRABRONID^E. p. 656. The True Wasps, Superfamily VESPINA. p. 657. The Guest Wasps, Family MASARID.E. p. 657. The Solitary Wasps, Family EUMEXID/E. p. 658. The Social Wasps, Family VESPID.E. p. 660. The Bees, Superfamily A PIN A. p. 664. The Short-tongued Bees, Family ANDRENID,^. p. 665. The Long-tongued Bees, Family APiD.t. p. 666. Classification of the Hymenoptera. (For Advanced Students.) Nearly all of the technical terms used in the descriptions of Hymenoptera in this work have been defined already. For a general account of the external parts of these insects see pp. 56-66 ; for a more detailed description of the external anatomy of an insect, see the discussion of the external anatomy of beetles, pp. 499. After a student has learned to recognize the sclerites in the body wall of a beetle, he will have but little trouble in determining the parts of a hymenopterous insect. The following points, however, should be carefully noted : - The Propodeuin.k remarkable peculiarity of Hymenoptera is that the first abdominal segment is united with the thorax in such a way as to appear to be a part of it ; and what appears to be the first abdominal segment, and is always called so, is really the sec- ond. The true first abdominal segment is called the propodeum (pro-po'-de-urn). The Tegithc. There is on each side of the second thoracic seg- ment a cup-like scale over the base of the fore-wing (Fig. 732, 5); this is the parapteron (see p. 502). The paraptera of the meso- thorax of Hymenoptera are termed the tegulce (teg'u-lse) ; they cor- respond to the patagia of Lepidoptera and to the elytra of Coleoptera. H YMENOP TERA . 603 The Parapsides. in this order the scutum ot the mesothorax is divided into three parts by two longitudinal sutures ; the lateral por- FIG. 732. A Chalcis-fly : i. pronotum ; 2, 2, parapsides ; 3, mesal part of the scutum of the mesothorax ; 4, scutellum; 5, tegulae. tions of the, scutum thus separated from the mesal part (Fig. 732, 2,2) are termed the par apsides (pa-rap'si-des). The Wing-veins. -It is much more difficult to determine the homologies of the wing-veins of the Hymenoptera than those of either the Lepidoptera or the Diptera ; for in this order the primitive plan is much more obscured. The best way to learn the wing-veins of the Hymenoptera is to make first a careful study of those of the Diptera, and then to compare the front wing of a generalized hymenopterous insect with a wing of one of the more generalized Diptera ; for this purpose take the front wing of a saw-fly of the genus Pamphiliits (Fig. 733) and that of Tabanits (Fig. 539, p. 454). In Pamphiliiis (Pam-phili-us), and in most other Hymenoptera also, the anal furrow or vein VIII is easily recognized as a concave fold, in the position indicated by the dotted line (Fig. 733, VIII). Having found this, a very important landmark is established. Next it should be understood that the Hymenoptera belong to that series of orders in which veins IV and VI are not developed; therefore the veins that lie in front of the anal furrow are veins I, II, III, V, and VII. Vein I forms the costal border of the wing, as in the Diptera (Fig. 733, I). Vein II is usually absent in the Hymenoptera; but in Pamphilius, and in a few other genera, it is well preserved (Fig. 733, II). It is simple, and is usually connected with vein III by a cross-vein. Vein III is the most difficult of all of the veins to understand. A very careful study of the problem has convinced the writer that this vein is typically five-branched in this order, resembling in this re- 604 THE STUDY OF INSECTS. spect the homologous veins in the Lepidoptera and Diptera. In the Hymenoptera the tips of the branches of vein III coalesce with other veins ; and when this coalescence has proceeded fur a con- siderable distance towards the base of the wing, the branches may appear like cross-veins, instead of branches of a longitudinal vein. This result is very similar to what takes place in the more specialized Diptera. In Pamphilus (Fig. 733) vein IILj is wanting; but this vein is present in Macro.vyela (mac-rox-y-e'laj (Fig. 735). In both of these genera there is a cross-vein between veins IIIi and IIIo +5 (Fig. 733- cv )- A similar cross-vein exists in some crane-flies, dividing cell ,11 virr FIG. 733. Wings of a saw-fly, ranif>hilins, with the veins numbered. IIIi into two parts (see Fig. 505). In both of these genera also the tips of veins II I 4 and Ills coalesce with vein Vi to such an ex- tent that these veins appear to be cross- veins. In the wing of the Honey-bee (Fig. 730) these veins are more obviously longitudinal ve i n s. Vein V is very similar to the homologous vein in the Diptera. It arises from a cross-vein extending from vein III to vein VII. In Painf>hilii:s it arises from near the costal end of this cross-vein; but in Apis (Fig. 730) its origin is near the middle of the cross-vein. In the Hymenoptera, however, the cross- vein III-VII is much farther from the base of the wing than it is in the Diptera. In the more H YMENOP TERA . 60 5 generalized Hymenoptera vein V is three-branched, and veins V 2 and V 3 are connected by a cross-vein, as in the Diptera ; but this cross- vein appears like a longitudinal vein (Fig. 733). The tip of vein V 3 has migrated from its primitive position on the outer margin of the wing to the anal furrow (vein VIII), and ends in this furrow at a greater or less distance from the margin of the wing (Fig. 733) ; the result of this migration is to pull the cross-vein V 2 -V 3 into a longi- tudinal position. Vein VII coalesces with vein III for a considerable distance from the base of the wing in Pamphilius (Fig. 733) ; but in Apis (Fig. 730), and in many other forms, it arises from the base of the wing. This vein is two-branched, as in the Lepidoptera and Diptera. The tips of the branches of vein VII have migrated from the margin of the wing to the anal furrow (vein VIII), and for a considerable distance along this furrow towards the base of the wing, so that both of these veins (VIIi and VII 2 ) end in the anal furrow, far from the margin of the wing; the result of this migration is to pull the cross-vein V 3 -VIIi into a longitudinal position. In Paniphilius (Fig. 733) this cross-vein is nearly longitudinal; in Apis (Fig. 730) it is completely so. In Pamphilius vein VI I 2 is very short, but well enough de- veloped so that there is no doubt regarding the homology; but in most Hymenoptera it has completely disappeared. In the area lying back of the anal furrow there also exists a tendency for veins to coalesce at their tips ; this is well shown in both fore and hind wings of Pamphilius ; and in the hind wings especially the united tips of veins IX and XI have migrated towards the base of the wing along the anal furrow (Fig. 733). The concave veins of the anal area (veins X and XII) are rarely developed ; in the hind wing of Pamphilius there is a fold which probably represents vein XII (Fig. 733). The Cells of the Wing. Having learned the venation of the wings it is easy to number the cells. There are, however, a few special terms that are used in works on this order; the more important of these are the following : - In most Hymenoptera there is an opaque spot on the costa, a short distance beyond the middle of the wing; this is the stigma (Figs. 734 and 735, s). The stigma lies between vein III: and the margin of the wing ; it is probably the apical portion of cell II. In Figure 733 it has not been blackened in order to show the course of vein III!. Usually vein IIIi , after joining the costa at the end of the stigma, does not again separate from it, but is joined by the tip of vein III 3 before the apex of the wing (Fig. 733). But in certain families the 6o6 THE STUDY OF INSECTS, rst FIG. 734. Wings of a saw-fly. Pamphilius, with the ceils numbered. 2d I IStll IStI 735- Wings of a saw-fly, Marroxyela., with the cells and veins II1 2 and III 3 of the fore-wing numbered. H Y MEN OP TERA . 607 tip of vein IIIi separates from the costa and coalesces with the tip of vein Ills at some distance from the costa. The space thus formed between the united tips of veins IIIi and Ills and the costa is termed the appendicnlate cell (Fig. 736, ap). FIG. 736. Wings of Larra with the cells numbered: ap, appendiculate cell. The cells marked in, m, ;//. in Figure 735, are termed the marginal cells ; and those marked sin, sni, sin, sin, the siibinarginal cells. The following table for determining the families of the Hymen- optera has been compiled from the works of several writers on this order, and is merely provisional. It, however, will enable the student to determine the larger and more common forms; and in the present state of our knowledge the study of the minute Hymenoptera is too difficult for the beginner. TABLE FOR DETERMINING THE FAMILIES OF THE HYMENOPTERA, A. Trochanters of the posterior legs, consisting each of two segments (Fig. 737, b) ; caudal end of body in the female furnished with a saw or borer for depositing the eggs. (Suborder TEREBRANTIA.) B. Abdomen joined broadly to the thorax. C. Anterior tibiae with two apical spurs ; abdomen of female fur- nished with a pair of saws. p. 61 1 TENTHREDiNiDyE. CC. Anterior tibiae with one apical spur ; abdomen of female fur- nished with a borer, p. 614 SiRlClD^. BB. Base of abdomen constricted. C. Abdomen joined to the dorsal aspect of the metathorax. p. 626. EVANIIDyE. CC. Insertion of the abdomen normal. D. Fore wings with no closed cells.* * In a few Proctotrupidae the wings have one or more closed cells. 608 THE STUDY OF IXSECTS. E. Borders of the mesoscutum intervening between the pro- notum and the tegulae (Fig. 738) ; ovipositor issuing be- fore the apex of the abdomen, p. 628 ..... CHALCIDID.E. EE. Pronotum extending to the tegulae (Fig. 739); oviposi- tor issuing from the apex of the abdomen, p. 630. DD. Fore wings with several closed cells, or at least with a closed or nearly closed marginal or submarginal cell.* E. Fore wings without a stigma, p. 615 ......... CV EE. Fore wings with a stigma. F. Fore wing with the vein between cells Vi and ist \~- 2 wanting (Fig. 740). G. Veins I-1II of the fore wing consolidated from the base of the wing to the stigma, p. 625. . BRACONID/E. GG. Base of fore wing with a cell between veins I and III. p. 624 .......................... STEPHANIDyE. FF. Fore wing with cells Vi and ist V 2 separate (Fig. 741 ). G. Veins I-III of fore wing consolidated from the base of the wing to the stigma, p. 621 . . .ICHNEUMONID^E. GG. Base of fore wing with a cell between veins I and III. p. 621 ........................ TRIGOXALID.*:. AA. Trochanters of the posterior legs, consisting each of a single segment (Fig. 737,